Incarceration Rates Growth Causes

On this page, the Prison Policy Initiative has curated all of the research that we know of about the growth in incarceration rates. For research on other criminal justice topics, see our Research Library homepage.

Trends in the New York State Prison Population, 2008-2023 Data Collaborative for Justice, July, 2023“The percentage indicted in the 5 boroughs of New York City decreased from 51% in 2008 to 38% in 2023...[and] a higher percentage of the prison population was indicted in upstate counties with major urban centers and rural upstate counties.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2021 - Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2023“At yearend 2021, an estimated 5,444,900 persons were under the supervision of adult correctional systems in the United States, a decline of 1% (down 61,100 persons) from yearend 2020.”
Are Supervision Violations Filling Prisons? The Role of Probation, Parole, and New Offenses in Driving Mass Incarceration Michelle S. Phelps, H. N. Dickens, and De Andre' T. Beadle, January, 2023“These estimates suggest that although adults on community supervision constitute a substantial part of mass incarceration's growth, technical violations have not been a primary driver of prison populations.”
Mass Incarceration Trends Sentencing Project, January, 2023“The year 2023 marks the 50th year since the U.S. prison population began its unprecedented surge.”
Prisoners in 2021 - Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2022“The U.S. prison population was 1,204,300 at yearend 2021, a 1% decrease from 2020 (1,221,200) and a 25% decrease from 2011 (1,599,000).”
Federal Prisoner Statistics Collected under the First Step Act, 2022 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2022“The federal prison population increased more than 3%, from 151,283 at yearend 2020 to 156,542 at yearend 2021.”
Louisiana Justice: Pre-trial, Incarceration, & Reentry Incarceration Transparency and Public Welfare Foundation, November, 2022“This report significantly expands understanding of the state's practice of confining almost half of the prison population in local jails...creating political and financial incentives at the local level to build larger and higher-capacity facilities.”
Justice System Disparities: Black-White National Imprisonment Trends, 2000 to 2020 Council on Criminal Justice, September, 2022“Faster growth in the nation's Black adult resident population contributed more to its respective imprisonment rate decline than did the White adult resident population growth.”
Repurposing Correctional Facilities to Strengthen Communities Sentencing Project, August, 2022“Prison capacity nationwide has been reduced by 81,444 beds [between 2000 and 2022]. Jurisdictions seeking support to finance prison reuse can access federal resources to purchase, construct, or improve designated facilities or provide related services.”
The relationship between community public health, behavioral health service accessibility, and mass incarceration Niloofar Ramezani et al, July, 2022“In this study, one county-level health factor emerged as important factor influencing per capita jail population: more physically unhealthy days within the past 30 days predicted a higher per capita jail population.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2020 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2022“Of the 346,681 persons under federal correctional control at fiscal year-end 2020, about 56% were in secure confinement and 44% were on community supervision.”
Elderly, Detained, and Justice-Involved: The Most Incarcerated Generation Rachel Bedard, Joshua Vaughn and Angela Silletti Murolo, March, 2022“A birth cohort born in the 1960s and 70s were set on a path towards lifetime justice involvement as a result of having come into adolescence during the height of the crack era and crime waves of the 1980s and early 1990s.”
Too Many Locked Doors Sentencing Project, March, 2022“Given the short- and long-term damages stemming from youth out of home placement, it is vital to understand its true scope. In 2019, there were more than 240,000 instances of a young person detained, committed, or both in the juvenile justice system.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2020 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2022“The decline in the correctional population during 2020 was due to decreases in both the community supervision population (down 276,700 or 6.6%) and the incarcerated population (down 294,400 or 18.9%).”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2022“This big-picture view is a lens through which the main drivers of mass incarceration come into focus; it allows us to identify important, but often ignored, systems of confinement.”
Felony Murder: An On-Ramp for Extreme Sentencing Sentencing Project, March, 2022“[Felony murder laws] violate the principle of proportional sentencing, which is supposed to punish crimes based on their severity. This report evaluates the legal and empirical foundation, and failings, of the felony murder rule.”
Elderly, Detained, and Justice-Involved: The Most Incarcerated Generation Rachel Bedard, Joshua Vaughn and Angela Silletti Murolo, March, 2022“A birth cohort born in the 1960s and 70s were set on a path towards lifetime justice involvement as a result of having come into adolescence during the height of the crack era and crime waves of the 1980s and early 1990s.”
Compassionate Release: The Impact of the First Step Act and COVID-19 Pandemic United States Sentencing Commission, March, 2022“As the length of the offender's original sentence increased, the likelihood that the court would grant relief decreased (from 56.9% of offenders sentenced to a term of 12 months or less to 19.8% of offenders sentenced to a term of 120-240 months).”
State prisons and local jails appear indifferent to COVID outbreaks, refuse to depopulate dangerous facilities Prison Policy Initiative, February, 2022“The increasing jail populations across the country suggest that after the first wave of responses to COVID-19, many local officials have allowed jail admissions to return to business as usual.”
People in Prison in Winter 2021-22 Vera Institute of Justice, February, 2022“All states and the federal prison system reduced their prison populations in 2020, but 19 states and the federal government increased the number of people incarcerated in prisons in 2021.”
New data: The changes in prisons, jails, probation, and parole in the first year of the pandemic Prison Policy Initiative, January, 2022“Most of the drop in prison populations occurred within the federal Bureau of Prisons and just three states: California, Florida, and Texas.”
The Civil Rights Implications of Cash Bail U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, January, 2022(This report examines pretrial incarceration trends, constitutional and legal concerns regarding pretrial and bail practices, an analysis of the role of the federal government regarding bail practices, and an in-depth investigation of four jurisdictions.)
Prisoners in 2020 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2021“The prison populations of California, Texas, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons each declined by more than 22,500 from 2019 to 2020, accounting for 33% of the total prison population decrease.”
The Golden Key: How State-Local Financial Incentives to Lock Up Kentuckians Are Perpetuating Mass Incarceration Kentucky Center for Economic Policy, October, 2021“Some county jails rely on the economies of scale created by overcrowding including the extra revenue that comes from holding people in state and federal custody and from charging fees to those who are incarcerated.”
States of Incarceration: The Global Context 2021 Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2021“Every U.S. state, and the United States as a nation, is an outlier in the global context. No other country incarcerates as many people, including countries with similar rates of”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2017-2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2021“Of the 372,354 persons under some form of federal correctional control at fiscal year-end 2018, 60% were in secure confinement and 40% were under community supervision.”
New data on jail populations: The good, the bad, and the ugly Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2021“While the total jail population dropped by 25% between June 2019 and June 2020, racial disparities increased over the same period.”
Time Served in State Prison, 2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2021“The average time served by state prisoners released in 2018, from initial admission to initial release, was 2.7 years, and the median time served was 1.3 years.”
Understanding the place of punishment: Disadvantage, politics, and the geography of imprisonment in 21st century America Katharine Beckett and Lindsey Beach, February, 2021“Geographic variation in the use of prisons in 21st century America affords an opportunity toassess--and advance--alternative theoretical perspectives on punishment.”
Reducing the Misuse and Overuse of Jails in Safety and Justice Challenge Sites: An Interim Progress Report CUNY Institute for State and Local Governance, February, 2021“Since implementation of the initiative began in 2016, ADP has declined substantially in many SJC sites. Ten of the 14 sites represented in this report experienced ADP reductions by Year 3, for a combined reduction of 18 percent.”
Poverty and Mass Incarceration in New York: An Agenda for Change Brennan Center for Justice, February, 2021“Roughly 337,000 New Yorkers have spent time in prison at some point in their lives. That burden has fallen disproportionately on people of color: three-quarters of the state's formerly imprisoned population is Black or Latino.”
People in Jail and Prison in 2020 Vera Institute of Justice, January, 2021“The number of people incarcerated in state and federal prisons and local jails in the United States dropped from around 2.1 million in 2019 to 1.8 million by mid-2020--a 14 percent decrease.”
Top Trends in State Criminal Justice Reform, 2020 Sentencing Project, January, 2021“Incarcerated people are nearly 5X more likely to get COVID-19 compared to the general population. Yet only a handful of states took steps to decarcerate in 2020.”
Building Safe, Thriving Communities: Research-Based Strategies for Public Safety NYU Law School Center for Race, Inequality, and the Law and the Justice Collaborative Institute, October, 2020“More and more, elected leaders and their constituents are recognizing that a path to safety and stability does not lie in a return to past, failed practices, but in an evidence-based, innovative reimagining of our law enforcement system.”
New BJS data reveals a jail-building boom in Indian country Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2020“The share of people held pretrial in Indian country jails increased by 20 percentage points (an 80% increase) from 1999 to 2018, and the average length of stay in Indian country jails has doubled since 2002.”
Locking Up My Generation: Cohort Differences in Prison Spells Over the Life Course Paywall :( Rand, October, 2020“Our study highlights a heretofore overlooked perspective: that the crime-punishment wave in the 1980s and 1990s created cohort differences in incarceration over the life course that changed the level of incarceration even decades after the wave.”
New BJS data: Prison incarceration rates inch down, but racial equity and real decarceration still decades away Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2020“At the current pace of decarceration, it will be 2088 when state prison populations return to pre-mass incarceration levels.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2017-2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2020“A total of 84 jails in Indian country held an estimated 2,870 inmates at midyear 2018, a 2% increase from the 2,820 inmates held in 84 facilities at midyear 2017”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2017-2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2020“An estimated 6,410,000 persons were held in prisons or jails or were on probation or parole in 2018.”
The First Step Act of 2018: One Year of Implementation United States Sentencing Commission, August, 2020(Since authorized by the First Step Act, 2,387 out of 226,000 people incarcerated in federal prisons received a reduction in sentence as a result of retroactive application of the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010.)
People in Prison in 2019 Vera Institute of Justice, May, 2020“"Vera researchers collected data on the number of people who were incarcerated in state and federal prisons as of December 31, 2019...[and] updated data on people in prison at the end of the first quarter of 2020."”
While jails drastically cut populations, state prisons have released almost no one Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2020“Our analysis finds that jails are responding to the unprecedented public health crisis by rapidly dropping their populations. In contrast, state prisons have barely budged.”
Prisoners in 2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2020“At year-end 2018, an estimated 1,465,200 prisoners were under state or federal jurisdiction.”
Top Trends in State Criminal Justice Reform, 2019 Sentencing Project, January, 2020“In recent years most states have enacted reforms designed to reduce the scale of incarceration and the impact of the collateral consequences of a felony conviction.”
Local Labor Market Inequality in the Age of Mass Incarceration Luke Petach and Anita Alves Pena, 2020“While income inequality is associated with higher rates of incarceration for all race and ethnicity groups (although not always in statistically significant fashion), the effect is largest for non-white, nonHispanic individuals.”
Sentencing Enhancements and Incarceration: San Francisco, 2005-2017 Stanford Computational Policy Lab, October, 2019“One could substantially reduce incarceration by focusing on a relatively small number of enhancements: Prop. 8 priors, Three Strikes, and the 10-20-life gun enhancement.”
The 1994 Crime Bill Legacy and Lessons, Part 1: Impacts on Prison Populations The Council on Criminal Justice, September, 2019“Congress appropriated $3 billion in funding for grant programs to expand prison capacity; the funding supported the construction of about 50,000 prison beds, representing about 4% of state prison capacity at the time.”
U.S. Prison Decline: Insufficient to Undo Mass Incarceration Sentencing Project, May, 2019“At the pace of decarceration since 2009, averaging 1% annually, it will take 65 years-- until 2085--to cut the U.S. prison population in half.”
How America's major urban centers compare on incarceration rates Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2019(Only 13 of the urban counties evaluated had incarceration rates significantly (that is, more than 10%) lower than the states they belong to.)
New York State's elderly prison boom: An update Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2018“Even as the incarceration rate for all other age groups declines, the number of people age 50 and over incarcerated in New York continues to rise rapidly.”
Decarceration Strategies: How 5 States Achieved Substantial Prison Population Reductions The Sentencing Project, September, 2018(This report summarizes key strategies and practices used by Connecticut, Michigan, Mississippi, Rhode Island, and South Carolina to reduce their prison populations, followed by extensive reviews for each of the five states.)
The Trial Penalty: The Sixth Amendment Right to Trial on the Verge of Extinction and How to Save It National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, July, 2018“The 'trial penalty' (the difference between the sentence offered in a plea offer prior to trial vs the sentence a defendant receives after trial) is now so severe & pervasive that it has virtually eliminated the constitutional right to a trial.”
States of Women's Incarceration: The Global Context 2018 Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2018“This report updates how U.S. women fare in the world's carceral landscape, comparing incarceration rates for women of each U.S. state with the equivalent rates for countries around the world.”
Incremental declines can't erase mass incarceration Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2018“Ending mass incarceration will require a fresh and holistic look at our societal values and priorities.”
The New Dynamics of Mass Incarceration Vera Institute of Justice, June, 2018“Contemporary decarceration exists alongside continuous growth, stagnation, and jurisdictional shifts between prisons and jails, akin to a shell game.”
Global Prison Trends 2018 Penal Reform International, May, 2018(This report analyzes trends in criminal justice and the use of imprisonment, showing that while overall crime rates around the world have declined, the number of people in prison on any given day is rising.)
People in Prison in 2017 Vera Institute of Justice, May, 2018“The total U.S. prison population dropped below 1.5 million for the first time since 2004. Despite the overall declines, 20 states increased their prison population, leaving 10 states with all-time-high numbers of people in prison.”
Detention of Juveniles in Illinois Recommendations to Right-Size Detention through Reforms and Fiscal Incentives to Develop Community-Based Alternatives. Juvenile Justice Initiative, April, 2018“This report includes a series of recommendations to "right-size" juvenile detention in Illinois.”
Can We Wait 75 Years to Cut the Prison Population in Half? The Sentencing Project, March, 2018“While most states have downsized their prison populations in recent years, the pace of decarceration is insufficient to undo nearly four decades of unrelenting growth.”
Divided Justice: Trends in Black and White Jail Incarceration, 1990-2013 Vera Institute of Justice, February, 2018(This report looks at incarceration trends from 1990 to 2013, finding that although significant racial disparities still exist between black & white jail incarceration rates, rates for black people are declining while rates for white people are rising.)
One War. Two Races. Bias Reigns in Florida's War on Drugs Herald Tribune, January, 2018“Blacks represent 17 percent of Florida’s population but have accounted for 46 percent of the state’s felony drug convictions since 2004.”
Less is More in New York: An Examination of the Impact of State Parole Violations on Prison and Jail Populations Columbia University Justice Lab, January, 2018(This research brief examines the decline in the number of people in New York's state prisons and local jails, including Rikers Island, and the simultaneous rise in the number of people incarcerated for state parole violations.)
The Gender Divide: Tracking women's state prison growth Prison Policy Initiative, January, 2018“This report sheds more light on women in the era of mass incarceration by tracking prison population trends since 1978 for all 50 states.”
Empire State of Incarceration Vera Institute of Justice, December, 2017(This report analyzes county-level factors that lead people to jail in New York state, providing a deeper understanding of the drivers of local incarceration.)
Native Disparities in Youth Incarceration The Sentencing Project, October, 2017“Native youth were three times as likely to be incarcerated as white youth, according to data collected in October 2015.”
Raising the Bar: State Trends in Keeping Youth Out of Adult Courts (2015-2017) Campaign for Youth Justice, October, 2017(Between 2015 & 2017, nine states and the District of Columbia have passed laws to limit or remove youth from adult facilities. In Oregon and New York, lawmakers passed bills in 2017 to categorically ban incarcerating youth with adults in the coming year.)
50,000 children: The Geography of America's Dysfunctional & Racially Disparate Youth Incarceration Complex Youth First, October, 2017“While the US Department of Justice reports that youth incarceration rates have decreased 50% between 1999 and 2013, too many youth are still locked up, and racial disparities among committed youth have widened.”
Latino Disparities in Youth Incarceration The Sentencing Project, October, 2017“Latino youth are 65 percent more likely to be detained or committed than their white peers, according to data collected in October 2015.”
The impacts of incarceration on crime Open Philanthropy Project, September, 2017“The best estimate of the impact of additional incarceration on crime in the United States today is zero. And, while that estimate is not certain, there is as much reason overall to believe that incarceration increases crime as decreases it.”
Forensic Patients in State Psychiatric Hospitals: 1999-2016 National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors, September, 2017“The results from this study indicate that, over a little less than two decades, states have seen an increase in the number of forensic patients who are present in their state hospitals.”
American Indian and Alaska Natives in Local Jails, 1999-2014 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2017(An estimated 10,400 American Indian and Alaska Native people were held in local jails at midyear 2014, up from an estimated 5,500 at midyear 1999.)
The Effects of Mass Incarceration on Conditions of Confinement in Michigan's Prisons Michigan Bar Journal, September, 2017“The explosion of Michigan’s prison population from 1975 through 2006 led to conditions of confinement that were often detrimental to prisoners’ rehabilitation.”
California Probation in the Era of Reform Public Policy Institute of California, August, 2017(California's public safety realignment shifted the management of lower-level offenders from state prison and parole to county jail and probation. This report discusses how these changes affected local corrections systems.)
Less Is More: How Reducing Probation Populations Can Improve Outcomes Harvard Kennedy School, August, 2017(The decline in the number of people on probation supervision in the U.S. should not only be sustained but significantly increased, with a goal of reducing the number of people under probation supervision by 50 percent over 10 years.)
The Prison Paradox: More Incarceration Will Not Make Us Safer Vera Institute of Justice, July, 2017“The impact of incarceration on crime is limited and has been diminishing for several years. Increased incarceration has no effect on violent crime and may actually lead to higher crime rates when incarceration is concentrated in certain communities.”
Mass Probation: Toward a More Robust Theory of State Variation in Punishment University of Minnesota, July, 2017“As a consequence, imprisonment rates became less reflective of states' overall supervision rates.”
Assessing the Impact of Georgia's Sentencing Reforms Urban Institute, July, 2017(This brief examines the impact of H.B. 1176 on commitments to prison, sentence lengths, and time served in the state of Georgia.)
The downstream effect of 35 years of jail growth? A state prison boom Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2017“Putting more people in jail for minor crimes will soon mean a state prison system bursting at the seams.”
Federal Prisons at a Crossroads The Sentencing Project, June, 2017“The number of people incarcerated in federal prisons has declined substantially in recent years. But recently enacted policy changes at the Department of Justice (DOJ) and certain Congressional proposals appear poised to reverse this progress.”
The Lack of a Relationship between Drug Imprisonment and Drug Problems The Pew Charitable Trusts, June, 2017“There is no statistically significant relationship between state drug offender imprisonment rates and three measures of state drug problems: rates of illicit drug use, drug overdose deaths, and drug arrests.”
Racial Disparities in Military Justice Protect Our Defenders, May, 2017“For every year reported and across all service branches, black service members were substantially more likely than white service members to face military justice or disciplinary action.”
A Federal Agenda to Reduce Mass Incarceration Brennan Center for Justice, May, 2017“Federal funding drives state policy, and helped create our current crisis of mass incarceration. And the federal government sets the national tone, which is critical to increasing public support and national momentum for change.”
U.S. Prison Population Trends 1999-2015: Modest Reductions with Significant Variation The Sentencing Project, May, 2017(While the majority of states have at least modestly reduced their prison populations in recent years, 16 states have achieved double-digit rates of decline and the federal system has downsized at almost twice the national rate.)
Still Life: America's Increasing Use of Life and Long-Term Sentences The Sentencing Project, May, 2017“Nearly half (48.3%) of life and virtual life-sentenced individuals are African American, equal to one in five black prisoners overall. As of 2016, 1 in every 9 people in prison was serving a life sentence.”
When did prisons become acceptable mental healthcare facilities? Stanford Law School Three Strikes Project, May, 2017“While the overall state prison population has decreased dramatically, the number of prisoners with mental illness continues to climb and is expected grow in the years ahead.”
Examining Racial Disparities in Criminal Case Outcomes among Indigent Defendants in San Francisco The Quattrone Center & The University of Pennsylvania Law School, May, 2017“Our analysis revealed that Black, White and Latinx indigent defendants in San Francisco have substantially different experiences during the criminal adjudication process.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2013-2014 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2017“At fiscal yearend 2014, about 400,000 offenders were under some form of federal correctional control.”
Accounting for Violence: How to Increase Safety and Break Our Failed Reliance on Mass Incarceration Vera Institute of Justice, February, 2017“[J]ust as it would be wrong to excuse people’s actions simply because they were previously victimized, it is also wrong to ignore someone’s victimization because the person previously broke a law or committed harm in the past.”
Incarceration Rates and Traits of Sexual Minorities in the United States: National Inmate Survey, 2011-2012 Meyer et al, February, 2017“The incarceration rate of self-identified lesbian, gay, or bisexual persons was 1882 per 100 000, more than 3 times that of the US adult population.”
Trends in Admission To The New York City Department of Correction 1995-2015 Misdemeanor Justice Project at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, December, 2016“From 1995 to 2015, the number of annual admissions to the New York City DOC dropped by nearly half (46.9 percent) from 121,328 to 64,458 admissions.”
Building Trust and Legitimacy Within Community Corrections Harvard Kennedy School Program in Criminal Justice, December, 2016“A shift from incarceration to community corrections could present numerous opportunities for reform of the criminal justice system as well as significant challenges.”
Another century of mass incarceration? Prison Policy Initiative, December, 2016“If the U.S. doesn't make reducing the correctional population a priority, generations will be burdened by mass incarceration.”
How Many Americans Are Unnecessarily Incarcerated? Brennan Center for Justice, December, 2016“Nearly 40 percent of the U.S. prison population — 576,000 people — are behind bars with no compelling public safety reason.”
Repurposing: New Beginnings for Closed Prisons The Sentencing Project, December, 2016“Since 2011, at least 22 states have closed or announced closures for 92 state prisons and juvenile facilities, resulting in the elimination of over 48,000 state prison beds and an estimated cost savings of over $333 million.”
The Geography of Incarceration: Boston Indicators Project, MassINC, and the Massachusetts Criminal Justice Reform Coalition, November, 2016“Many people of color live in Boston neighborhoods with such highly concentrated rates of incarceration that nearly every street—in some cases every other building— contains a resident who has been incarcerated.”
The Geography of Incarceration: Boston Indicators Project, MassINC, and the Massachusetts Criminal Justice Reform Coalition, November, 2016“Many people of color live in Boston neighborhoods with such highly concentrated rates of incarceration that nearly every street—in some cases every other building— contains a resident who has been incarcerated.”
A Wealth of Inequalities: Mass Incarceration, Employment, and Racial Disparities in U.S. Household Wealth, 1996 to 2011 Bryan L. Sykes, University of Washington and Michelle Maroto, University of Alberta, October, 2016“[A] non-Hispanic white household with an institutionalized member would actually hold more in assets than an otherwise similar black or Hispanic household without an institutionalized member.”
Defining Violence: Reducing Incarceration and Rethinking America's Approach to Violence Justice Policy Institute, August, 2016“[This report] explores how something is defined as a violent or nonviolent crime, how that classification affects how the justice system treats a person, and how all that relates to the use of incarceration.”
Evaluation of Strategies to Reduce Louisiana's Incarceration Rate and Costs for Nonviolent Offenders Louisiana Legislative Auditor, August, 2016“[T]he purpose of this report was to evaluate potential strategies to reduce incarceration rates and costs for nonviolent offenders in Louisiana.”
Correctional Control: Incarceration and supervision by state Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2016“For the first time, this report aggregates data on all of the kinds of correctional control: federal prisons, state prisons, local jails, juvenile incarceration, civil commitment, Indian Country jails, parole and, lastly but importantly, probation.”
The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in State Prisons The Sentencing Project, June, 2016“This report documents the rates of incarceration for whites, African Americans, and Hispanics, providing racial and ethnic composition as well as rates of disparity for each state.”
Update: Changes in State Imprisonment Brennan Center for Justice, June, 2016“[This fact sheet] analyzes data from all 50 states on imprisonment and crime from 2006 (as bipartisan criminal justice reforms generally began around 2007) through 2014 (the most recent year of data).”
Tallying the extent of the Clinton-era crime bills Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2016“The problem isn't one bill, or two or even three but at least seven bills.”
Stemming The Rising Tide: Racial & Ethnic Disparities in Youth Incarceration & Strategies for Change W. Haywood Burns Institute, May, 2016“Youth are being incarcerated for longer periods of time, with Black and Latino youth having the longest stays out of home.”
BJS data shows graying of prisons Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2016“ccording to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, people 55+ are now the fastest growing age group in the U.S. prison population.”
President Obama's record on clemency: A premature celebration Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2016“With a little over 6 months left in his term, President Obama is on track to become the President who has granted the smallest portion of clemency requests in history.”
Racial Disparities in Youth Commitments and Arrests The Sentencing Project, April, 2016“As of 2013, black juveniles were more than four times as likely to be committed as white juveniles[.]”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2016 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2016(The American criminal justice system holds more than 2.3 million people in thousands of facilities, and we go deeper to provide further detail on where and why.)
Race, Wealth and Incarceration: Results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Race and Social Problems, March, 2016“[T]he likelihood of future incarceration still was higher for blacks at every level of wealth compared to the white likelihood[.]”
How Has Proposition 47 Affected California's Jail Population Public Policy Institute of California, March, 2016“Taken together, we find significant changes in the level and composition of those incarcerated in jails following the passage of Prop 47.”
Punishment Rate Measures Prison Use Relative to Crime The Pew Charitable Trusts, March, 2016“A more nuanced assessment of punishment than the ratio of inmates to residents is that of inmates to crime- what The Pew Charitable Trusts calls the 'punishment rate.'”
Is Downsizing Prisons Dangerous? The Effect of California's Realignment Act on Public Safety Criminology and Public Policy, February, 2016“Significant reductions in the size of prison populations are possible without endangering public safety.”
A National Picture of Prison Downsizing Strategies The RAND Corporation, February, 2016“After decades of unprecedented correctional expenditures and prison population growth, many states faced fiscal pressures on their corrections budgets as the country entered a deep recession in 2008.”
Exonerations in 2015 The National Registry of Exonerations, February, 2016“2015 set a record for exonerations in the United States - 149 that we know of so far, in 29 states, the District of Columbia, federal courts and Guam.”
Geographic Variation in the Cumulative Risk of Imprisonment and Parental Imprisonment in the United States University of California & Cornell University, 2016(This article reports estimates of the cumulative risk of imprisonment and parental imprisonment for demographic groups in four regions and four states. Findings indicate that there is substantial racial inequality in levels of risk.)
States of Incarceration: The Global Context 2016 Prison Policy Initiative, 2016“[P]lacing each state in a global context reveals that incarceration policy in every region of this country is out of step with the rest of the world.”
Census of Jails: Population Changes, 1999-2013 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2015“From 1999 to 2013, the number of inmates in local jails increased by 21%, from 605,943 to 731,570. During this period, the growth in the jail population was not steady, as the jail confined population peaked in 2008 at 785,533 then declined.”
Probation in California Public Policy Institute of California, December, 2015“Probation is the most widely used form of correctional supervision in California.”
Removing Barriers to Opportunity for Parents With Criminal Records and Their Children Center for American Progress, December, 2015“Our new analysis estimates that between 33 million and 36.5 million children in the United States--nearly half of U.S. children--now have at least one parent with a criminal record.”
How Judicial Elections Impact Criminal Cases Brennan Center for Justice, December, 2015“The more frequently television ads air during an election, the less likely state supreme court justices are, on average, to rule in favor of criminal defendants.”
Correctional Populations In The United States, 2014 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2015“The correctional population has declined by an annual average of 1.0% since 2007.”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2015 Prison Policy Initiative, December, 2015(The U.S. locks up more than 2.3 million people in prisons, jails, and other facilities on any given day.)
Sentencing in California: Moving Toward a Smarter, More Cost-Effective Approach California Budget & Policy Center, December, 2015“Despite these positive steps, California's sentencing laws continue to overly rely on incarceration as the consequence for committing a felony or a misdemeanor, rather than promoting community-based interventions.”
In Our Own Backyard: Confronting Growth and Disparities in American Jails Vera Institute of Justice, December, 2015“Rather, mid-sized and small counties--which account for the vast majority of jails--have largely driven growth, with local jail populations increasing since 1970 by 4.1 times in mid-sized counties and 6.9 times in small counties.”
Veterans In Prison And Jail, 2011-2012 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2015“The number of veterans incarcerated in state and federal prison and local jail decreased from 203,000 in 2004 to 181,500 in 2011-12.”
Declines in Youth Commitments and Facilities in the 21st Century Sentencing Project, December, 2015“Between 2001 and 2013, the number of juveniles committed to juvenile facilities after an adjudication of delinquency (or, as was the case for 413 juveniles, conviction in criminal court) fell from 76,262 to 35,659.”
States of Women's Incarceration: The Global Context Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2015“When compared to jurisdictions across the globe, even the U.S. states with the lowest levels of incarceration are far out of line.”
First Do No Harm: Advancing Public Health in Policing Practices Vera Institute of Justice, November, 2015(This report details the cultural divide among system actors that amplify and sustain these problems and offers recommendations on how law enforcement policymakers and practitioners can enhance both public safety and community health.)
Juvenile Commitment Rate Drops 53% The Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, November, 2015“From 2001 to 2013, the U.S. juvenile commitment rate declined 53 percent, according to data recently released by the Department of Justice's Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.”
Justice in Katrina's Wake: Changing Course on Incarceration in New Orleans Vera Institute of Justice, November, 2015“This report documents the groundbreaking reforms that the City of New Orleans has engaged in to safely decrease its use of detention, from reducing the physical size of its jail to implementing risk-based pretrial release practices.”
Prison Price Tag: The High Cost of Wisconsin's Corrections Policies Wisconsin Budget Project, November, 2015“Wisconsin state and local governments spend about $1.5 billion on corrections each year, significantly more than the national average given the size of our state.”
Prison Time Surges for Federal Inmates The Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, November, 2015“The average length of time served by federal inmates more than doubled from 1988 to 2012, rising from 17.9 to 37.5 months.”
How to reduce the federal prison population Urban Institute, October, 2015“Substantial reductions to the BOP population can be achieved by reforming sentencing law and policy for drug trafficking.”
Drug Offenders In Federal Prisons: Estimates Of Characteristics Based on Linked Data Bureau of Justice Statistics; Urban Institute, October, 2015“Almost all (99.5%) drug offenders in federal prison were serving sentences for drug trafficking.”
Prisoners in 2014 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2015“The number of prisoners held by state and federal correctional authorities on December 31, 2014 (1,561,500) decreased by 15,400 (down 1%) from yearend 2013.”
Explaining Texas' overnight prison boom Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2015“Throughout the 1980s, the Texas imprisonment rate closely matched the national imprisonment rate. But between 1993 and 1998, the Texas imprisonment rate almost doubled, causing Texas' total custody population to quickly escalate.”
Reducing Mass Incarceration Requires Far-Reaching Reforms Urban Institute, August, 2015(Cutting total admissions in half for the 15 states in the forecaster would reduce their collective prison population by 37 percent through 2021.)
Using the federal budget to fuel decarceration Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2015“Given the federal government's historical role in fueling mass incarceration, Chettiar points out, federal budgetmakers could switch gears to instead incentivize smarter and more measured criminal justice policymaking.”
Prisons of Poverty: Uncovering the pre-incarceration incomes of the imprisoned Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2015“We found that, in 2014 dollars, incarcerated people had a median annual income of $19,185 prior to their incarceration, which is 41% less than non-incarcerated people of similar ages.”
10,000 fewer Michigan prisoners: Strategies to reach the goal Citizens Alliance on Prisons and Public Spending, June, 2015“This report establishes credible estimates of how many prison beds could be saved by adopting each strategy.”
What's behind New York State's elderly prison boom? Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2015“While the number of people behind bars has fallen for most age groups, the number of people over the age of 50 incarcerated in New York State prisons is climbing.”
The Impact of an Aging Inmate Population on the Federal Bureau of Prisons DOJ Office of the Inspector General, May, 2015“According to BOP data, inmates age 50 and older were the fastest growing segment of its inmate population, increasing 25 percent from 24,857 in fiscal year (FY) 2009 to 30,962 in FY 2013.”
Alternatives to Incarceration in California Public Policy Institute of California, April, 2015(The evidence suggests that the effectiveness of both incarceration and community-based supervision depends on the rate of incarceration in a community, the offender characteristics, and the response to violations during and after supervision.)
Drivers of Growth in the Federal Prison Population Urban Institute, March, 2015“The biggest driver of growth in the prison population is in federally sentenced drug offenders, almost all of whom were convicted of drug trafficking.”
Corrections Infrastructure Spending in California Public Policy Institute of California, March, 2015“At the end of 2005, CDCR operated 33 prisons with a statewide design capacity of more than 80,000 beds.”
2014 WI Prison End-of-Year Population Snapshot on 12/31/2014 Wisconsin Department of Corrections, March, 2015(The overall population increased 8.9% from 2000 to 2014.)
U.S. Prison Population Trends: Broad Variation Among States in Recent Years Sentencing Project, March, 2015“Two-thirds of states (34) have experienced at least a modest decline since 1999, while one-third (16) have had continued rises in their prison populations.”
In Brief: Examining the Changing Racial Composition of Three States' Prison Populations CSG Justice Center, March, 2015“In each of these cases, closer inspection of the data shows that these states experienced considerable reductions in the overall number of people being admitted to prison, and that the decline in admissions has been steepest for blacks and Hispanics.”
Black Lives Matter: Eliminating Racial Inequity in the Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, February, 2015(The report identifies four key features of the criminal justice system that produce racially unequal outcomes, beyond the conditions of socioeconomic inequality that contribute to higher rates of some crimes in marginalized communities.)
What Caused the Crime Decline? Brennan Center for Justice, February, 2015“In the 2000s, increased incarceration had no effect on violent crime and accounted for less than one-hundredth of the decade’s property crime drop.”
State Criminal Justice Advocacy in a Conservative Environment Sentencing Project, February, 2015“This overview highlights successful advocacy strategies employed in conservative political environments in the states of Indiana, Missouri, and Texas.”
Adult and Juvenile Correctional Population Projections The State of Texas Legislative Budget Board, February, 2015“Adult state incarcerated populations are projected to remain stable throughout fiscal years 2015 to 2020 and to remain, on average, 0.7 percent below the Texas Department of Criminal Justice’s internal operating capacity.”
The Right Investment?: Corrections Spending in Baltimore City Justice Policy Institute; Prison Policy Initiative, February, 2015“Maryland taxpayers spend $288 million a year to incarcerate people from Baltimore City.”
Incarceration's Front Door: The Misuse of Jails in America Vera Institute of Justice, February, 2015“With nearly 12 million annual admissions- almost 19 times those to state and federal prisons- jails have an impact that is both far-reaching and profound.”
The Correctional Policy Project: Iowa Prison Population Forecast FY 2015-FY 2025 Iowa Department of Human Rights, January, 2015“Long term projections suggest Iowa's prison population may be expected to increase from 8,188 inmates on June 30, 2015 to about 10,058 inmates on June 30, 2025, or by about 23% over the ten-year period.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2011-12 Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 2015“At yearend 2012, 414,065 persons were under some form of federal correctional control 62% were in confinement and 38% were under supervision in the community. ”
Justice Reinvestment in Nebraska Analysis and Policy Framework The Council of State Governments Justice Center, January, 2015“If this growth continues unchecked, prisons will become even more crowded, swelling from 159 percent of capacity (5,221 people) as of December 31, 2014 to a projected 170 percent of capacity (5,581 people) by FY2020.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2011 - Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 2015(Information is acquired on all aspects of processing in the federal justice system, including the number of persons investigated, prosecuted, convicted, incarcerated, sentenced to probation, released pretrial, and under parole or other supervision; etc.)
Federal Justice Statistics, 2012 - Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 2015“Tables and text describe arrests and investigations by law enforcement agency and growth rates by type of offense and federal judicial district.”
Growth in Federal Prison System Exceeds States' Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, January, 2015“However, between 2007 and 2013, many states made research-driven policy changes to control prison growth, reduce recidivism, and contain costs. While the federal imprisonment rate continued to rise during that period, the state rate declined.”
Quick Facts: Federal Offenders in Prison United States Sentencing Commission, January, 2015“Half of all offenders (50.0%) in the federal prison population were sentenced to more than ten years in prison, while 4.9% were sentenced to 30 years or longer, and 2.5% were sentenced to life in prison.”
End of an Era? The Impact of Drug Law Reform in New York City Vera Institute of Justice, January, 2015“The National Institute of Justice-funded study found that drug law reform, as it functioned in the city soon after the laws were passed, led to a 35 percent rise in the rate of diversion of eligible defendants to treatment.”
A Natural Experiment in Reform: Analyzing Drug Policy Change In New York City, Final Report Vera Institute of Justice, January, 2015“Individuals in the Diversion Group were rearrested at a lower rate than those in the Sentenced Group. Therefore, there is a law enforcement benefit of $146 and a court system benefit of $886 per person in treatment.”
Realignment and Recidivism in California Public Policy Institute of California, 2015“California’s historic public safety realignment has had a modest effect on the state’s persistently high recidivism rates, varying across groups of offenders and counties.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2014“An estimated 6,899,000 persons were under the supervision of adult correctional systems at yearend 2013, down from 6,940,500 at yearend 2012.”
Paroling people who committed serious crimes: What is the actual risk? Citizens Alliance on Prisons & Public Spending, December, 2014(People who commit homicides or sex offenses have extremely low re-offense rates. This report argues that parole decisions should take into account this reality & aim to better repare people for release, not incarcerate them needlessly.)
The Rise in State Prison Populations Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, December, 2014“Most states' prison populations are at historic highs after decades of extraordinary growth. This growth has been costly, limiting economic opportunity for communities with especially high incarceration rates.”
Justice Reinvestment in North Carolina: Three Years Later The Council of State Governments Justice Center, November, 2014“A total of 10 prisons closed as a result and the state is using some of the savings generated to focus on improving supervision practices by adding 175 probation and parole officers and investing in cognitive interventions and substance use treatment.”
States Project 3 Percent Increase in Prisoners by 2018 Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, November, 2014“The number of state prison inmates is expected to rise 3 percent by 2018, according to projections collected from 34 states by the Pew Charitable Trusts.”
Most States Cut Imprisonment and Crime Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, November, 2014“Over the past five years, the majority of states have reduced their imprisonment rates while experiencing less crime.”
Iowa Prison Population Forecast FY 2014-FY 2024 Iowa Department of Human Rights Division of Criminal and Juvenile Justice Planning, October, 2014(If current offender behaviors and justice system trends, policies, and practices continue, Iowa's prison population may be expected to increase by about 39 percent over the ten-year period.)
Bias Behind Bars: Decreasing Disproportionate Rates of Incarcerated Women in California and Nationwide for Low-Level Offenses The Women's Foundation of California, October, 2014“Nationally-but especially in California-women have been incarcerated for nonviolent, poverty-related offenses at disproportionate rates compared to men.”
Incorporating Racial Equity into Criminal Justice Reform Sentencing Project, October, 2014“Reform strategies that do not directly tackle racial disparity ignore the multifaceted ways in which public safety is produced. Key among these is the perception of the criminal justice system by the community.”
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2013 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2014(At yearend 2013, an estimated 4,751,400 adults were under community supervision---a decline of about 29,900 offenders from yearend 2012.)
Citizenship and Punishment: The Salience of National Membership in U.S. Criminal Courts Michael T. Light, Michael Massoglia, and Ryan D. King, October, 2014“Noncitizens--particularly undocumented immigrants--are far more likely to be incarcerated and sentenced for longer periods than are U.S. citizens.”
Oregon Corrections Population Forecast State of Oregon Office of Economic Analysis, October, 2014“The number of inmates housed in Oregon's prisons, currently 14,598, is expected to grow to 15,074 inmates by September 2024.”
New BJS figures show that mass incarceration is getting bigger Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2014“Overall, the state and federal prison population increased slightly between 2012 and 2013.”
Prisoners in 2013 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2014“On December 31, 2013, the United States held an estimated 1,574,700 persons in state and federal prisons, an increase of approximately 4,300 prisoners (0.3%) from 2012.”
Florida's Aging Prisoner Problem Florida Tax Watch, September, 2014“Between 2000 and 2014, the elderly prison population grew from 5,605 to 21,002, at an average increase of 9.9 percent per year, a rate more than three times higher than the general prison population.”
BJS victimization figures show slight decline in violent crime Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2014“State policy drives mass incarceration. States with high rates of incarceration have very little to show for it.”
Prison and Crime: A Complex Link Pew Public Safety Performance Project, September, 2014“New York and Florida had divergent imprisonment rates, but both cut crime rates by the same amount.”
Federal Prosecution for the 21st Century Brennan Center for Justice, September, 2014“The report proposes reorienting the way prosecutors' "success" is measured around three core goals: Reducing violent and serious crime, reducing prison populations, and reducing recidivism.”
Success-Oriented Funding: Reforming Federal Criminal Justice Grants Brennan Center for Justice, August, 2014“Specifically, the president should use his executive authority to recast all federal grants for criminal justice in a "Success-Oriented Funding" model, in which the flow of dollars is linked to the achievement of clear goals.”
Explaining Dimensions of State-Level Punitiveness in the United States: The Roles of Social, Economic, and Cultural Factors Baker Institute of Public Policy, August, 2014(For incarceration, citizen engagement and property crime have a statistically significant and negative impact on state punitiveness, while the percent of population that is black has a significant and positive effect.)
Aging Behind Bars: Trends and Implications of Graying Prisoners in the Federal Prison System Urban Institute, August, 2014“The number of prisoners age 50 or older experienced a 330 percent increase from 1994 to 2011.”
Why is West Virginia the federal prison capital of the country? Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2014“West Virginia has more federal prison cells per capita than any other state.”
Liberal but Not Stupid: Meeting the Promise of Downsizing Prisons Joan Petersilia and Francis T. Cullen, Stanford Journal of Criminal Law and Policy, June, 2014“The issue of downsizing will also remain at the forefront of correctional discourse because of the court-ordered reduction in imprisonment in California...a 'criminology of downsizing' must be developed to foster effective policy interventions.”
Mississippi's 2014 Corrections and Criminal Justice Reform Pew's Public Safety Performance Project, May, 2014“...nonviolent offenders and those revoked for probation or parole violations accounted for a large and growing share of Mississippi's prison population.”
Tracking State Prison Growth in 50 States Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2014“This briefing fills the gap with a series of more than 100 graphs showing prison growth (and sometimes decline) for every state in the nation to encourage states to confront how their criminal policy choices undermine our national welfare.”
Prison Population Trends 2013 Massachusetts Department of Correction, May, 2014“A steady decline from January 2012 to January 2014 reflects a seven percent decrease in the custody population.”
Ten Economic Facts about Crime and Incarceration in the United States The Hamilton Project, May, 2014(The high incarceration rate can have profound effects on society; research has shown that incarceration may impede employment and marriage prospects, increase poverty and behavioral problems among children, and amplify the spread of communicable diseases.)
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2014“Jail churn is particularly high because at any given moment most of the 722,000 people in local jails have not been convicted...”
Profiting from Probation: America's "Offender-Funded" Probation Industry Human Rights Watch, February, 2014“The central problem with offender-funded, pay only probation is this: the longer it takes offenders to pay off their debts, the longer they remain on probation and the more they pay in supervision fees.”
Under Custody Report: Profile of Under Custody Population As of January 1, 2014 State of New York Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, January, 2014“This report...profiles under custody offenders' demographic and criminal history characteristics.”
Voices from the Field: How California Stakeholders View Public Safety Realignment Stanford Criminal Justice Center, January, 2014“What is the result of California's great prison experiment? Even after conducting 125 interviews with agencies across California, it remains a challenge to adequately summarize the changes that Realignment (AB 109) has wrought across the state.”
Reallocation of Responsibility: Changes to the Correctional System in California Post-Realignment Stanford Criminal Justice Center, January, 2014“California has decarcerated under Realignment. The state prison population has decreased by 29,886 people since 2010, while the jail population has modestly increased by 8,229 people.”
Congressional Action Mandated to Reduce Rising Costs of Incarceration Out4Good, January, 2014“It becomes evident that more than $100 billion is being spent annually to accommodate the confinement and correctional supervision of these individuals.”
Justice Reinvestment Initiative State Assessment Report Urban Institute, January, 2014“Since enacting JRI, all eight states - Arkansas, Hawaii, Louisiana, Kentucky, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, and South Carolina - have experienced reductions in their prison populations since the start of JRI.”
Demographic Patterns of Cumulative Arrest Prevalence by Ages 18 and 23 Brame, Robert, January, 2014“...about 30% of Black males have experienced at least one arrest by age 18 (vs. about 22% for White males); by age 23 about 49% of Black males have been arrested (vs. about 38% for White males).”
The Growth of Incarceration in the United States Exploring causes and consequences National Research Council., 2014“The study assesses the evidence and its implications for public policy to inform an extensive and thoughtful public debate about and reconsideration of policies.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2013“Among those offenders who were released from federal prison in 2008 and returned within 3 years, 59% returned for a supervision violation and 39% returned for a new offense.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2012 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2013“Although the correctional population declined by 0.7% during 2012, this was the slowest rate of decline observed since 2009 when the population first decreased.”
Prisoners in 2012: Trends in Admissions and Releases, 1991-2012 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2013“The number of releases from U.S. prisons in 2012 (637,400) exceeded that of admissions for the fourth consecutive year, contributing to the decline in the total U.S. prison population.”
Virginia's Justice System: Expensive, Ineffective, and Unfair Justice Policy Institute, November, 2013“Despite some recent small progress in the areas of post-incarceration reentry, particularly felony disenfranchisement, the state continues to suffer under misguided policies and practices of the past.”
Study of Victim Experiences of Wrongful Conviction ICF International, November, 2013“A number of victims described the impact of the wrongful conviction as being comparable to, or worse than, their original victimization.”
Ending Mass Incarceration: Social Interventions that Work The Sentencing Project, October, 2013“Evidence based research provides the strongest support for school and community-based interventions in lieu of residential placement.”
Life Goes On: The Historic Rise in Life Sentences in America Sentencing Project, September, 2013“As of 2012, there were 159,520 people serving life sentences, an 11.8% rise since 2008.”
Report of the Sentencing Project to the UN Human Rights Committee Regarding Racial Disparities in the United States Criminal Justice System The Sentencing Project, August, 2013“If current trends continue, one of every three black American males born today can expect to go to prison in his lifetime, as can one of every six Latino males--compared to one of every seventeen white males.”
Imprisonment and Disenfranchisement of Disconnected Low-Income Men Urban Institute, August, 2013“When broken out by race and ethnicity, striking differences appear: incarceration rates for African American men are over six times higher than rates for white men and nearly two and a half times higher than rates for Hispanic men...”
Prisoners in 2012 - Advance Counts Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2013“The U.S. prison population declined for the third consecutive year in 2012, from a high of 1,615,487 inmates in 2009 to 1,571,013 at yearend 2012.”
Preliminary Crack Retroactivity Data Report Fair Sentencing Act U.S. Sentencing Commission, July, 2013“After federal sentencing guideline changes on crack cocaine were made retroactive, more than 7,300 defendants got on average a 29-month reduction in their sentences.”
Recidivism in Delaware: An Analysis of Prisoners Released in 2008 and 2009 Delaware Criminal Justice Council, July, 2013“Recidivism rates are generally higher for Blacks than for Whites, and higher for males than for females. Additionally, recidivism rates were lower for those who had longer prison sentences (i.e., lengths of stay).”
The Potential of Community Corrections to Improve Safety and Reduce Incarceration Vera Institute of Justice, July, 2013“Community-based supervision has always had the potential to support individual change, help make communities safer, and reduce public costs. Now it's getting more attention due to budget constraints, prison proliferation, and high recidivism rates.”
The Comeback States: Reducing youth incarceration in the United States National Juvenile Justice Network and the Texas Public Policy Foundation, June, 2013“Six policies encourage reductions in reliance on detention and incarceration, including disallowing incarceration for minor offenses, and increasing the availability of evidence-based alternatives to incarceration.”
Impact of Realignment on County Jail Populations Public Policy Institute of California, June, 2013“Between June 2011 and June 2012, the state prison population declined by 26,600 inmates. Concurrently, California's county average daily jail population grew by about 8,600 inmates...”
Juvenile Incarceration, Human Capital and Future Crime: Evidence from Randomly-Assigned Judges Brown University, MIT, June, 2013“"Estimates suggest that juvenile incarceration results in large decreases in the likelihood of high school completion and large increases in the likelihood of adult incarceration."”
Jails in Indian Country, 2012 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2013“At midyear 2012, a total of 2,364 inmates were confined in Indian country jails—a 5.6% increase from the 2,239 inmates confined at midyear 2011.”
Jail Inmates at Midyear 2012 - Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2013“The average daily population (ADP) in jails remained stable from 735,565 during the 12-month period ending June 30, 2011, and 735,983 during the 12-month period ending June 30, 2012.”
Prison Population Trends 2012 Massachusetts Department of Correction, May, 2013“The intent of this report is to provide a comprehensive overview of inmate statistics specific to CY2012 as well as trends over the last five to ten years.”
Realignment Report A One-year Examination of Offenders Released from State Prison in the First Six Months of Public Safety Realignment California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, May, 2013“The 1-year arrest/conviction rates of offenders released pre and post-Realignment is similar, but the 1-year return to prison rate was substantially less post-Realignment since most offenders in this cohort were ineligible to return on a parole violation.”
Ending Mass Incarceration: Charting a New Justice Reinvestment Experts from a coalition of organizations including The Sentencing Project, JFA Institute, the American Civil Liberties Union, and Justice Strategies., April, 2013“While JRI has played a significant role in softening the ground and moving the dial on mass incarceration reform, it runs the danger of institutionalizing mass incarceration at current levels.”
The Federal Bureau of Prisons' Compassionate Release Program U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector, General Evaluation and Inspections Division, April, 2013“Procedures and timeliness standards do not reference the compassionate release program or acknowledge the special circumstances of an inmate requesting compassionate release (particularly those with terminal medical conditions/limited life expectancies).”
Massachusetts Department of Correction - 2012 Gordon Haas, Norfolk Lifers Group, March, 2013“Report compares the MA Department of Corrections's stated goals with current practices and outcomes, making suggestions for improvements to promote rehabilitation and reduce recidivism.”
Beyond Realignment: Counties' Large Disparities in Imprisonment Underlie Ongoing Prison Crisis Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, March, 2013“High-imprisonment, state-dependent jurisdictions consume excessive prison space, contribute to overcrowding and lawsuits, and create higher state taxpayer liabilities than do low-imprisonment, self-reliant counties that manage more offenders locally.”
New Jersey Jail Population Analysis: Identifying Opportunities to Safely and Responsibly Reduce the Jail Populations Luminosity and Drug Policy Alliance, March, 2013“Inmates who had been indicted but had not yet had a trial had been in custody on average 314 days. 12% of the entire jail population was held in custody solely due to an inability to pay $2500 or less to secure their release pending disposition.”
The Changing Racial Dynamics of Women's Incarceration Sentencing Project, February, 2013“In 2000 black women were incarcerated at six times the rate of white women. By 2009 that ratio had declined by 53%, to 2.8:1. This shift was a result of both declining incarceration of African American women and rising incarceration of white women.”
Reducing Youth Incarceration in the United States a KIDS COUNT Data Snapshot Annie E. Casey Foundation, February, 2013“Since 1995 the rate of youth in confinement dropped by 41 percent, from 381 per 100,000 youth to 225 per 100,000.”
Common Ground: Lessons Learned from Five States that Reduced Juvenile Confinement by More than Half Justice Policy Institute, February, 2013“For all states and the District of Columbia, the number of youth in residential placement dropped steadily from its high of 107,493 in 1999 to 70,792 in 2010.”
Immigration Enforcement in the United States: The Rise of a Formidable Machinery Migration Policy Institute, January, 2013“the US government spends more on its immigration enforcement agencies than on all its other principal criminal federal law enforcement agencies combined. In fY 2012, spending for the primary immigration enforcement agencies reached nearly $18 billion.”
Under Custody Report: Profile of Inmate Population Under Custody on January 1, 2013 State of New York Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, January, 2013“This report...presents information on inmates and incarcerated parolees held under Department of Corrections and Community Supervision (DOCCS) custody on January 1, 2013.”
How New York City Reduced Mass Incarceration: A Model for Change? Vera Institute of Justice, the Brennan Center for Justice, and the JFA Institute, January, 2013“From 1988 to 2008, the number of felonies reported by New York City to the FBI dropped from 719,887 to 198,419 – a remarkable 72 percent reduction. Outside of New York City, the number of crimes declined by half as much, only 38 percent.”
The Federal Prison Population Buildup: Overview, Policy Changes, Issues, and Options Congressional Research Service, January, 2013“The per capita cost of incarceration for all inmates increased from $19,571 in FY2000 to $26,094 in FY2011. During this same period of time, appropriations for the BOP increased from $3.668 billion to $6.381 billion.”
Adult and Juvenile Correctional Population Projections Fiscal Years 2013 to 2018 State of Texas Legislative Budget Board, January, 2013“The Texas adult incarceration population is projected to remain relatively flat in fiscal years 2013 and 2014 and begin a gradual increase to reach 156,877 by the end of fiscal year 2018.”
The Growth & Increasing Cost of the Federal Prison System: Drivers and Potential Solutions Urban Institute, December, 2012“Reducing sentence length, particularly for drug offenders, would be the most direct way to slow the projected growth of the BOP population.”
Examining Growth in the Federal Prison Population, 1998 to 2010 Urban Institute, December, 2012“The increase in expected time served by drug offenders was the single greatest contributor to growth in the federal prison population between 1998 and 2010.”
On the Chopping Block 2012: State Prison Closings Sentencing Project, December, 2012“In 2012, at least six states have closed 20 prison institutions or are contemplating doing so, potentially reducing prison capacity by over 14,100 beds and resulting in an estimated $337 million in savings.”
Report to the Governor and Legislative Budget Board on the Monitoring of Community Supervision Diversion Funds Texas Department of Criminal Justice, December, 2012“The felony direct community supervision population increased 5.2% from August 31, 2005 (157,914 offenders) to August 31, 2012 (166,054 offenders), while the number of felony technical revocations decreased 10.9% between FY2005 (13,504) & FY2012 (12,034).”
Report to the Governor - 2012 Oregon Commission on Public Safety, December, 2012“Oregon's imprisonment rate has grown at over three times the rate of the national average in the last decade. During that same period, prison admissions have grown to include increasing percentages of nonviolent offenders.”
Prisoners in 2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2012“Declining for the second consecutive year, state and federal prison populations totaled 1,598,780 at yearend 2011, a decrease of 0.9% (15,023 prisoners) from yearend 2010.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2012“At yearend 2011, about 1 in every 50 adults in the U.S. was supervised in the community on probation or parole while about 1 in every 107 adults was incarcerated in prison or jail.”
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2012“At yearend 2011, for the first time since 2002, the U.S. probation population fell below 4 million.”
Report of the Special Council on Criminal Justice Reform for Georgians Special Council on Criminal Justice Reform for Georgians, November, 2012“The data shows that most individuals sentenced to prison are drug and property offenders, and these offenders are also staying behind bars for longer periods of time. Drug and property offenders represent almost 60 percent of all admissions.”
What Have We Done? Mass Incarceration and the Targeting of Albany's Black Males by Federal, State, and Local Authorities Center for Law and Justice, October, 2012“Law enforcement officials are now using a new tool to arrest and prosecute drug-related crimes: racketeering laws. Young African-American men from Albany are now being subjected to additional years in prison, in some cases for committing no new crimes.”
Arrest in the United States, 1990-2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2012“The number of murder arrests in the U.S. fell by half between 1990 and 2010. The adult and juvenile arrest rates dropped substantially in the 1990s, while both continued to fall about 20% between 2000 and 2010, reaching their lowest levels since at least”
Growing Inmate Crowding Negatively Affects Inmates, Staff, & Infrastructure United States Government Accountability Office, September, 2012“[T]he growth of the federal inmate population and related crowding have negatively affected inmates housed in BOP institutions [and] institutional staff [...] and have contributed to inmate misconduct, which affects staff and inmate security and safety.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2012“At midyear 2011, a total of 2,239 inmates were confined in Indian country jails, a 5.7% increase from the 2,119 inmates confined at midyear 2010.”
Realigning Justice Resources A Review of Population and Spending Shifts in Prison and Community Corrections Vera Institute of Justice, September, 2012“Between 2009 and 2010, Vera observed a stark downward shift in expenditures across many states and systems of prison and community corrections despite variations in population change—a consequence, perhaps, of shrinking state budgets.”
Three Strikes: The Wrong Way to Justice Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice, Harvard Law School, June, 2012“By properly limiting the applicability of the habitual offender provisions, Massachusetts will be able to reinvest in its people through education, treatment, training, and community development programs.”
Survey of Sentencing Practices FY 2011 Massachusetts Sentencing Commission, May, 2012“For state prison sentences, the median minimum state prison sentence was 36.0 months and the median maximum state prison sentence was 48.0 months.”
Justice Reinvestment in Pennsylvania A Comprehensive Public Safety Plan for the Commonwealth Council of State Governments Justice Center, May, 2012(Comprehensive public safety plan that reduces costly inefficiencies in PA's criminal justice system and reinvests savings in law enforcement strategies that deter crime, local diversion efforts that reduce recidivism & services for crime victims.)
Reducing the use of imprisonment What can we learn from Europe? Criminal Justice Alliance, May, 2012“One of the most dramatic changes in prison numbers over the last few years has been experienced by the Netherlands. Germany, too, has seen a significant reduction in use of custody.”
World Prison Population List (ninth edition) International Centre for Prison Studies, April, 2012“Prison populations have risen in 78% of countries: in 71% of countries in Africa, 82% in the Americas, 80% in Asia, 74% in Europe and 80% in Oceania.”
Public Safety Realignment: California at a Crossroads American Civil Liberties Union of California, March, 2012“Based upon our review, at least 32 of California's 58 counties have plans to expand jail capacity using AB 109 funds or other tax dollars, even though realignment provides more effective and affordable options for addressing jail overcrowding.”
Eligibility and Capacity Impact Use of Flexibilities to Reduce Inmates' Time Government Accountability Office, February, 2012“Increased funding would have reduced the Residential Drug Abuse Treatment Program wait lists and enabled eligible inmates to enter the program early enough to earn their maximum allowable sentence reductions.”
The State of Sentencing 2011 Sentencing Project, February, 2012“During 2011, state legislatures in at least 29 states adopted 55 criminal justice policies that may contribute to continued population reductions and address the collateral consequences associated with felony convictions.”
The Disproportionate Impact of the Criminal Justice System on People of Color in the Capital Region Center for Law and Justice, February, 2012“Statewide, from 2000 to 2011 the number of minorities incarcerated dropped by 29%; in Albany County, the number of minorities incarcerated increased by 60% over the same time period.”
Tough on Crime (on the State's Dime): How Violent Crime Does Not Drive California Counties' Incarceration Rates - And Why it Should W. David Ball, January, 2012“California's prison overcrowding is due in large part to county decisions about how to deal with crime. Counties use state prison resources at dramatically different rates, and the counties which use state prisons the most have below-average crime rates.”
Old Behind Bars the Aging Prison Population in the United States Human Rights Watch, January, 2012“Between 1995 and 2010, the number of state and federal prisoners age 55 or older nearly quadrupled (increasing 282 percent), while the number of all prisoners grew by less than half (increasing 42 percent). There are now 124,400 prisoners age 55+.”
A Report on the Massachusetts Department of Corrections - 2011 Gordon Haas, Chairman, Norfolk Lifers Group, January, 2012“The DOC's organizational culture [...] continues to be driven by a penchant for retribution. As a result, what the DOC accomplishes is merely to warehouse prisoners until they are released to become someone else's concern.”
Under Custody Report: Profile of Incarcerated Offender Population Under Custody on January 1, 2012 State of New York Department of Corrections and Community Supervision, January, 2012“This report...presents information on offenders held under Department of Corrections and Community Supervision (DOCCS) custody on January 1, 2012.”
Jail Needs Assessment for San Mateo County: A preliminary analysis Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, December, 2011“Based on current trends, CJCJ recommends deferring construction of new jail space until alternative pretrial release [...] expanded probation supervision, reduced probation revocation, and expanded community treatment alternatives have been fully explored”
Census of Jail Facilities, 2006 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2011“A total of 3,283 jail facilities, including jails in the federal system, were operating in 2006, down 93 from 3,376 in 1999.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2011“Between 2004 and 2010, the number of inmates held in Indian country jails increased by 21%, from 1,745 to 2,119.”
Prisoners in 2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2011(During 2010, prison releases (708,677) exceeded prison admissions (703,798) for the first time since BJS began collecting jurisdictional data in 1977.)
Missouri Working Group on Sentencing and Corrections Consensus Report Missouri Working Group on Sentencing and Corrections, December, 2011“The Working Group conducted extensive analysis of state data and trends and has reached consensus on a package of reforms that will improve public safety, hold offenders accountable, and contain corrections costs by strengthening community supervision.”
Correctional Population in the United States, 2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2011“The decline in the number of jail inmates (down 18,700) accounted for 20% of the decrease in the total correctional population.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2011“from 2000 to 2006, the rate of arrests made by federal law enforcement increased at 8 times the rate of arrests by state and local law enforcement.”
Iowa Prison Population Forecast FY2011-2021 Iowa Department of Human Rights Division of Criminal and Juvenile Justice Planning, November, 2011“If current offender behaviors and justice system trends, policies, and practices continue, Iowa's prison population may be expected to increase from 8,787 inmates on June 30, 2011 to about 11,300 inmates on June 30, 2021 [29%].”
Oregon Corrections Population Forecast (updated regularly) State of Oregon Office of Economic Analysis, October, 2011“The number of inmates housed in Oregon's prisons, currently about 14,000, is expected grow to 16,000 inmates by the end of the decade, with much of that growth occurring over the next four years.”
Report to Congress Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the Federal Criminal Justice System United States Sentencing Commission, October, 2011“[C]ertain mandatory minimum provisions apply too broadly, are set too high, or both, to warrant the prescribed minimum penalty for the full range of offenders who could be prosecuted under the particular criminal statute.”
Probation And Parole In The United States, 2010 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2011“The state parole population declined by 0.3% during 2010. The number of adults on supervised release in the federal system increased by 4.9%, which contributed to the increase in the U.S. parole population.”
Arrest In The United States, 1980-2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2011“The U.S. murder arrest rate in 2009 was about half of what it was in the early 1980s. Over the 30-year period ending in 2009, the adult arrest rate for murder fell 57%, while the juvenile arrest rate fell 44%.”
Smart Reform is Possible States Reducing Incarceration Rates and Costs While Protecting Communities ACLU, August, 2011“As states across the country are realizing that reducing prison populations and corrections budgets is a necessity, they can look to the examples in this report as ways to reform their criminal justice systems with promising results.”
Rethinking the State-Local Relationship Public Policy Institute of California, August, 2011“The legislature has passed and Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation (AB 109) to send roughly 30,000 prisoners to county jail rather than state prison.”
Misguided Measures The Outcomes and Impacts of Measure 11 on Oregon's Youth Partnership for Safety and Justice, July, 2011“Over the three-year period from 2006 to 2008, data from the 36 Oregon counties show no discernible pattern between the number of young people charged with a Measure 11 offense and the juvenile crime rate.”
Time Served The High Cost, Low Returns of Long Prison Terms Pew Center on the States, June, 2011“Nationally, the fastest period of growth in time served came between 1995 and 2000. In that period, length of stay rose 28 percent, compared with less than 5 percent in the five-year periods before and after.”
Creating the Roadmap for Reduction Reducing the Number of Women in Prison in Alabama Justice Policy Institute, April, 2011“In the summer of 2009, Corrections and JPI staff recognized the opportunity to expedite the reclassification of currently-incarcerated women using the new classification module and the need to add capacity to identify women who can be safely released.”
Survey of Sentencing Practices FY 2010 Massachusetts Sentencing Commission, April, 2011“Includes a statistical summary of the last known address of defendants for cities and towns in Massachusetts.”
The State of Sentencing 2010 Developments in Policy and Practice Sentencing Project, February, 2011“During 2010, state legislatures in at least 23 states and the District of Columbia adopted 35 [...] policies that may contribute to reductions in the prison population and eliminate barriers to reentry while promoting effective approaches to public safety”
Jails in Indian Country, 2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2011“Over the 12 months ending June 2009, the average daily jail population in Indian country increased by 12%, and the percentage of occupied bed space increased from 64.2% to 73.5%.”
When More is Less How a Larger Women's Jail in Baltimore will Reduce Public Safety and Diminish Resources for Positive Social Investments Justice Policy Institute, January, 2011“Given that research indicates that increased incarceration does not equal less crime--it actually is the opposite -- the negative public safety, economic and community impacts of the planned expansion are not justifiable.”
Turning the Corner Opportunities for Effective Sentencing and Correctional Practices in Arizona Justice Strategies, January, 2011“Arizona policymakers can restore judicial discretion to sentence people to more effective, less costly correctional supervision and treatment options in lieu of prison in cases where such measures would clearly better serve both justice and public safety.”
Institution Length of Stay: January 2011 Massachusetts Department of Correction, January, 2011“This research brief provides an overview of the number of days that inmates spend at each facility—the average institution length of stay.”
Examination of Cook County Bond Court Report of the Justice Advisory Council Justice Advisory Council of the County of Cook, 2011“A cash bond for the release of over 66% of pretrial detainees, a full two-thirds, has been set by the Court at a bond hearing. However, the large majority of pretrial detainees, who procedurally have not been adjudicated guilty, are unable to post [bail].”
Correctional Populations In The United States, 2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2010“The rate of decline in the jail population during 2009 was the highest rate of change observed among all four correctional populations, including the probation, parole, jail, and prison populations.”
Texas' School-to-Prison Pipeline Ticketing, Arrest & Use of Force in Schools Texas Appleseed, December, 2010“Where a child attends school, and not the nature of the offense, is the great determining factor in whether a student will be arrested at school.”
Prisoners in 2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2010“The imprisonment rate—the number of sentenced prisoners per 100,000 U.S. residents—declined for the second straight year, falling to 502 per 100,000 from 506 per 100,000 in 2007.”
California Sentencing Institute Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, November, 2010“comprehensive analysis of sentencing policies and practices in all of California's 58 counties.”(Contains detailed county-level statistics)
Preventable Error A Report on Prosecutorial Misconduct in California 1997 - 2009 Northern California Innocence Project, Santa Clara University School of Law, October, 2010“[This report] is the most comprehensive, up-to-date, quantitative and actionable study on the extent of prosecutorial misconduct in CA, how the justice system identifies and addresses it, and its cost and consequences, including [wrongful convictions].”
Incarceration and Social Inequality Bruce Western & Becky Pettit, August, 2010“The social inequality produced by mass incarceration is sizable and enduring for three reasons: it is invisible, it is cumulative, and it is intergenerational.”
Jail Inmates at Midyear 2009 Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2010“During the 12 months ending June 30, 2009, the number of male (-1.7%), female (-6.0%), and adult (-2.2%) inmates declined.”
Prison Inmates at Midyear 2009 Statistical Tables Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2010“Of the 16 states reporting decreases, California (down 3,644), Texas (down 2,347), and Michigan (down 1,554) reported the largest decreases.”
Prisoners at Yearend 2009-Advance Counts Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2010“At yearend 2009, state and federal correctional authorities had jurisdiction over 1,613,656 prisoners, an increase of 0.2% (3,897 prisoners) from yearend 2008.”
Baltimore Behind Bars How to Reduce the Jail Population, Save Money, and Improve Public Safety Justice Policy Institute, June, 2010“9 out of 10 people in the [Baltimore] jail are awaiting trial, compared to about 2 out of 3 in the rest of the country. [Reducing] the number of people held pretrial in a safe and effective way can greatly reduce the jail population & associated costs.”
It's about time Aging Prisoners, Increasing Costs, and Geriatric Release Vera Institute of Justice, April, 2010“Given that many state policymakers have expressed an intention to permit the release of elderly inmates who are not a threat to public safety, it is remarkable that geriatric release policies have had little impact.”
Prison Count 2010 State Population Declines for the First Time in 38 Years Pew Center on the States, April, 2010“[A]s of January 1, 2010, there were 1,404,053 persons under the jurisdiction of state prison authorities, 4,777 (0.3 percent) fewer than there were on December 31, 2008. This marks the first year-to-year drop in the state prison population since 1972.”
Integration Debate Two Tiered Justice Sentencing Project, January, 2010“[I]n the most profound betrayal of the promise of integration and opportunity, the United States has created a world-record prison population, fueled by policies that have exposed substantial portions of African Americans to the.. criminal justice system.”
The State of Sentencing 2009 Developments in Policy and Practice Sentencing Project, January, 2010“During 2009 state legislatures in at least 19 states enacted policies that hold the potential to reduce prison populations and/or promote more effective approaches to public safety.”
Life Without Parole A Reconsideration Criminal Justice Policy Coalition and the Norfolk Lifers Group, 2010“Everyone serving a Life Without Parole sentence in MA, after 25 years should be afforded an opportunity to demonstrate both a rehabilitated character and a low public safety risk through access to a parole hearing and, where appropriate, parole.”
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2009“The report examines… changes in the probation and parole populations, such as the number of entries and exits, the rate at which probationers and parolees exit supervision, changes in the populations within jurisdictions, and compositional changes.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2009“The report includes data on the number of adults and juveniles held, type of offense, number of persons confined on the last weekday of each month, average daily population, peak population, and admissions in June 2008.”
Prisoners in 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2009“These are the only comprehensive national-level data on prison admissions and releases.”
Fact Sheet DOJ Report on Prisoners 2008 Justice Policy Institute, December, 2009(The report shows that although the growth in imprisonment is down, the number of people in prison is still increasing, up more than 12,000 people from last year. This number continues to grow even as crime goes down.)
Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, October, 2009([An] overview of the factors that contribute to racial disparity in the justice system, and recommend[ed] changes in policy and practice that could reduce these disparities without compromising public safety.)
Fact Sheet Response to 2008 FBI Uniform Crime Report Justice Policy Institute, September, 2009(The 2008 FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that during 2008, at a time in which prison and jail growth rates dropped, the United States experienced a 1.9 percent decline in violent crimes and a 0.8 percent decline in property crimes reported.)
Denying parole at first eligibility How much public safety does it actually buy? Citizens Alliance on Prisons and Public Spending, August, 2009“Substantially increasing the rate of parole on the earliest release date would reduce the prisoner population without threatening public safety.”
No Exit: The Expanding Use of Life Sentences in America Sentencing Project, July, 2009“A record 140,610 individuals are now serving life sentences in state and federal prisons, 6,807 of whom were juveniles at the time of the crime.”
Fact Sheet on FY2010 Department of Justice Budget Justice Policy Institute, May, 2009(The Factsheet on 2010 Department of Justice Budget finds that the 2010 DOJ budget directs more money to law enforcement than prevention with the likely long-term outcome being increased arrests, incarceration, and money spent on corrections.)
Parental Imprisonment, the Prison Boom, and the Concentration of Childhood Disadvantage Christopher Wildeman, May, 2009“Parental imprisonment has emerged as a novel—and distinctively American—childhood risk that is concentrated among black children and children of low-education parents.”
Pruning Prisons How Cutting Corrections Can Save Money and Protect Public Safety Justice Policy Institute, May, 2009(The United States spends spend billions to incarcerate people in prisons and jails with little impact on public safety, but redirecting funds to community-based alternatives will decrease prison populations, save money, and preserve public safety.)
Jailing Communities The Impact of Jail Expansion and Effective Public Safety Strategies Justice Policy Institute, April, 2009“In 2006, prison population growth was half what it was in 1996, but in recent years, jail population growth has exceeded that of prisons.”
Bearing Witness Baltimore City's Residents Give Voice to What's Needed to Fix the Criminal Justice System Justice Policy Institute, April, 2009(Bearing Witness captures the perspectives of the people of Baltimore City impacted by the criminal justice system and their suggestions for alternatives to addressing social problems.)
The Changing Racial Dynamics of the War on Drugs Sentencing Project, April, 2009“Reports a sharp decline in black incarceration for drug offenses for the first time in 25 years.”
Judging Maryland Baltimore Judges on Effective Solutions to Working with Substance Abusers in the Criminal Justice System Justice Policy Institute, March, 2009“Judges recommend an increase in or expansion of residential care facilities and a more holistic approach to helping substance abusers caught up in the criminal justice system.”
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections The Pew Center on the States, March, 2009“For eight geographically diverse states [...] 88% of the increase in corrections spending was directed towards prisons, which now consume nearly nine out of every ten state corrections dollars.”
The Release Valve: Parole in Maryland Justice Policy Institute, March, 2009“[I]n 2007 [Maryland] spent approximately $1,422 per person on parole or probation, and $33,310 per person incarcerated.”
Justice Re-investment in New Orleans Spatial Information Design Lab, February, 2009“By 2007, the citywide incarceration rate was at 57 percent of its 2003 level, while the overall population was estimated at 71 percent of its pre-Katrina figure.”
Prisoners in 2007 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2008“At yearend 2007, federal and state prisons and local jails held just under 2.3 million inmates (2,293,157). The number of inmates incarcerated in prison or jail increased by 1.5% during the year.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2007 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2008“Eighty-three jails in Indian country held an estimated 2,163 inmates at midyear 2007, up from 1,745 inmates held in 68 facilities at midyear 2004.”
Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2008“The number of prisoners held in custody in state and federal correctional facilities increased 10% from 1,305,253 in 2000 to 1,430,208 in 2005.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2008“In 2005, immigration (27%) was the most prevalent arrest offense followed by drug (24%) and supervision violations (17%).”
Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2008“Parents held in the nation's prisons—52% of state inmates and 63% of federal inmates—reported having an estimated 1,706,600 minor children, accounting for 2.3% of the U.S. resident population under age 18.”
Growth in Michigan's Corrections System: Historical and Comparative Perspectives Citizen's Research Counsel of Michigan, June, 2008“Michigan's prison population growth is the product of a combination of several different factors including: increases in felony dispositions, swelling prison commitments, higher recidivism rates, and an increased average prisoner length of stay.”
Jail Inmates at Midyear 2007 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2008“The total rated capacity of local jails at midyear 2007 reached 813,502 beds, up from an estimated 677,787 beds at midyear 2000.”
Do More Prisoners Equal Less Crime? A Response to George Will Sentencing Project, June, 2008“Will's selective use of data and limited vision provide an inaccurate portrayal of current criminal justice policy and its effects. [This piece] is an assessment of some of the key arguments raised in the column.”
Prison Inmates at Midyear 2007 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2008“Between January and June 2007, the prison population increased by 1.6% (or 24,919 prisoners), compared to a 2% increase during the first six months of 2006.”
Native American Youth and the Juvenile Justice System National Council on Crime and Delinquency, March, 2008(Juvenile Justice disparities between Native American youth and White youth are alarmingly high and in need of remediation.)
One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008 The Pew Center on the States, February, 2008“[F]or the first time in history, more than one in every 100 adults in America are in jail or prison-a fact that significantly impacts state budgets without delivering a clear return on public safety.”
The State of Sentencing 2007: Developments in Policy and Practice The Sentencing Project, January, 2008“Confronted with the high cost of continued prison growth, policymakers in 18 states took steps during 2007 to review the effectiveness of their criminal justice systems or institute reforms to limit recidivism and sentence lengths...”
Prisoners in 2006 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2007“During 2006 the number of women in prison increased by 4.5%, reaching 112,498 prisoners.”
Unlocking America: Why and How to Reduce America's Prison Population JFA Institute, November, 2007“Not only are our lengths of imprisonment significantly longer than they were in earlier periods in our penal history, but they are considerably longer than in most Western nations.”
Housing and Public Safety Justice Policy Institute, November, 2007“For populations who are the most at-risk for criminal justice system involvement, supportive or affordable housing has been shown to be a cost effective public investment.”
Justice, Where Art Thou? A Framework for the Future Council on Crime and Justice, October, 2007(This report analysies past and current incarceration trends in Minnesotra and makes projection through the year 2030.)
Felony Sentences in State Courts, 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2007“Between 1994 and 2004, the number of felony convictions in State courts increased 24%.”
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2006 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2007“For the 12 months ending June 30, 2006, State systems reported a larger increase than the Federal system in the number of inmates housed in private prisons.”
DTAP (Drug Treatment Alternative-to-Prison) Sixteenth Annual Report Kings County (Brooklyn) District Attorney, April, 2007“In its sixteenth year of operation, DTAP continued to maintain high treatment retention and low recidivism rates and to produce enormous cost savings.”
Changing Direction? State Sentencing Reforms 2004-2006 The Sentencing Project, March, 2007“The report... identifies that the most popular approach for reducing prison crowding -- implemented by 13 states -- was the diversion of low-level drug offenders from prison to drug treatment programs.”
Public Safety, Public Spending: Forecasting America's Prison Population 2007-2011 Public Safety Performance Project of The Pew Charitable Trusts, February, 2007“This report provides forecasts for prison populations and incarceration rates for all 50 states.”
The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men American Immigration Law Foundation, February, 2007“[F]or every ethnic group without exception, incarceration rates among young men are lowest for immigrants, even those who are the least educated.”
World Prison Population List (Eighth Edition) Roy Walmsley, International Centre for Prison Studies, King's College London, February, 2007“Over 9.8 million people are incarcerated, with over 30% held in the Unites States.”
Addressing Key Criminal Justice Issues in the 21st Century Correctional Association of New York, February, 2007“This special report presents some of our top reform proposals for the state's new administration to consider and the benefits they will provide for people caught up in the criminal justice system and for society as a whole.”
Reconsidering Incarceration: New Directions for Reducing Crime Vera Institute of Justice, January, 2007“An increase in the number of police per capita, a reduction in unemployment, and increases in real wage rates and education have all been shown to be associated with lower rates of crime.”
Solving California's Corrections Crisis: Time is Running Out Little Hoover Commission, January, 2007“California's correctional system is in a tailspin that threatens public safety and raises the risk of fiscal disaster.”(An overview of the current state of the California corrections system, with recommendations.)
The Criminal Justice System in Washington State: Incarceration Rates, Taxpayer Costs, Crime Rates, and Prison Economics Washington State Institute for Public Policy, 2007(In Washington state increasing the rate of incarceration reduces crime rates, however because of diminishing returns, the proportional decrease in crime is much lower now than it was in the 1980's.)
Prisoners in 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2006“State prisons were operating between 1% below and 14% above capacity; Federal prisons were operating at 34% above capacity.”
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2006“In 2005 the Nation's parole population grew 1.6%. This was an increase of 12,556 parolees during the year.”
Evidence-Based Public Policy Options to Reduce Future Prison Construction, Criminal Justice Costs, and Crime Rates Washington State Institute for Public Policy, October, 2006“We find that some evidence-based programs can reduce crime, but others cannot. Per dollar of spending, several of the successful programs produce favorable returns on investment.”
2006 Crime and Justice Index Chicago Metropolis 2020, October, 2006“This Index presents data on crime trends and justice patterns in the region over time. It also explores specific policy issues and some promising practices intended to address seemingly intractable problems in the criminal justice systems.”
When A Historical Analysis of Life Sentences Imposed in Michigan Since 1900 Citizens Alliance on Prisons & Public Spending, September, 2006“The historical record makes it indisputably clear that a life sentence in Michigan did not always mean”
Estimated Prevalence of Felons Among the Oklahoma Adult Population Oklahoma Criminal Justice Resource Center, September, 2006“Nearly one in seven adult males and one in every 30 adult females in Oklahoma have either been to prison or supervised on probation.”
Who's in Prison? The Changing Demographics of Incarceration Public Policy Institute of California, August, 2006“Forty-four percent of California prisoners do not have a high school diploma or GED; the comparable number for the general California adult population is 21 percent.”
Task Force on California Prison Crowding National Council on Crime and Delinquency, August, 2006“Essential services, procedures, and structures designed to reduce recidivism, break the intergenerational cycle of violence, and save taxpayer dollars for more positive expenditures will reduc[e] crime in our communities and enhanc[e] public safety.”
Profile of Inmates Under Custody on January 1, 2006 State of New York Department of Corrections and Community Supervision., June, 2006
Recent Trends in New Hampshire's Prison Population New Hampshire Center for Public Policy Studies, June, 2006“Parole revocation is the main factor driving prison admissions, and most revocations are not due to new crimes. In 2002... 66 percent were for technical violations.”
Strengthening Criminal Justice System Practices in Chemung County, NY Center for Governmental Research, Inc., May, 2006“[A]bout 125 defendants a year are released from jail after 45 days due to lack of timely prosecution. If the jail time for these individuals could be cut in half, almost 8 fewer persons would need to be housed in jail every night.”
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2006
Alabama Sentencing Commission 2006 Report Alabama Sentencing Commission, January, 2006“Of Alabama's inmate population, almost 1 out of 3 inmates are sentenced as an habitual offender.”
Reducing Racial Disparity While Enhancing Public Safety: Key Findings and Recommendations Council on Crime and Justice, 2006“The racial disparity in Minnesota's justice system is exceptionally high compared to other states. From arrest to imprisonment, the disparity is over twice the national average.”
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2005
Hennepin County Disproportionate Minority Contact Study Examining Extended Jurisdiction Juvenile and Adult Certification Cases Council on Crime and Justice, October, 2005“[R]ace was not significant when considering the disposition of Extended Jurisdiction Juvenile or Adult Certification motioning. Instead, weapons and firearms appear to be the most influential factor in both motioning and dispositions.”
Prisoners in 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2005
A Primer: Three Strikes - The Impact After More Than a Decade Legislative Analyst's Office (LAO) - California's Nonpartisan Fiscal and Policy Advisor, October, 2005
Searching for Justice: American Indian Perspectives on Disparities in Minnesota's Criminal Justice System Council on Crime and Justice, August, 2005“This report indicates that in one county, while American Indians make up only 11.5% of the population, they account for over 50% of the arrest rates.”
Profile of Inmates Under Custody on January 1, 2005 New York Department of Correctional Services, April, 2005
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2005
Jails in Indian Country, 2003 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2005
California Corrections at the Crossroads National Council on Crime and Delinquency, March, 2005“California was once a leader in innovative corrections legislation and programming. However... the last twenty years... have left California with a huge and dysfunctional criminal justice system in woeful need of reform.”
Tipping Point: Maryland's Overuse of incarceration and the impact on Public Safety Justice Policy Institute, March, 2005
Adult and Juvenile Correctional Population Projections Fiscal Years 2005-2010 Texas Legislative Budget Board, January, 2005(Texas prison population projections: the adult prison population is projected to increase, while probation population decreases, in juvenile populations both groups projected to grow.)
Race and Incarceration in Delaware: A Preliminary Consideration Thomas P. Eichler, Published by Delaware Center for Justice and Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League, 2005“Delaware's criminal justice system treats Blacks differently and far less favorably than similarly situated Whites. The data shows that the racial disparities in the criminal justice system are increasing.”
Felony Sentences in State Courts, 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2004
Prisoners in 2003 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2004
Difficult times in Kentucky corrections: Aftershocks of a "tough on crime" philosophy Robert G. Lawson, November, 2004
Racial Divide: California's 3 Strikes Law Justice Policy Institute, October, 2004
No way out Michigan's parole board redefines the meaning of Citizens Alliance on Prisons & Public Spending, September, 2004(When judges imposed a life sentence, they assumed that the prisoner would be parolled in 10-15 years, but in the 1990's the parol board started denying parol, in effect changing the sentence, contributing to overcrowding and increasing costs of prisons.)
3 Strikes & You're Out: An examination of 3-Strike Laws 10 years after their Enactment Justice Policy Institute, September, 2004
Swing States: Crime, Prisons and the Future of the Nation Justice Policy Institute, August, 2004
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2003 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2004
Profile of Jail Inmates, 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2004
ABA Justice Kennedy Commission Recommendations American Bar Association, June, 2004
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2003 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2004
The Meaning of "Life" Long Prison Sentences in Context Sentencing Project, May, 2004
Virginia Criminal Sentencing Commission Annual Report 2003 Virginia Criminal Sentencing Commission, March, 2004(An increasing number of people on probation or parole who have not committed new crimes are being sent to prison for breaking their release conditions)
Still Striking Out: Ten Years of California's Three Strikes Justice Policy Institute, March, 2004
Pennsylvania Parole and Life Imprisonment Jon E. Yount, February, 2004([This report] provides an overview of the evolution of parole in Pennsylvania and how this "penological measure" has or has not been applied to terms of life imprisonment.)
Building Bridges: From Conviction to Employment - One Year Later Council of State Governments, February, 2004(contains detailed maps of high incarceration areas in Hartford and New Haven Connecticut)
Options for Policymakers Considering a Justice Reinvestment Initiative in Louisiana Council of State Governments, January, 2004
Profile of Inmate Population Under Custody on January 1, 2004 New York Department of Correctional Services, 2004“There were 65,197 inmates under custody on January 1, 2004, of whom 62,284 (95.5%) were men and 2,913 (4.5%) were women.”
The high cost of denying parole: an analysis of prisoners eligible for release Citizens Alliance on Prisons & Public Spending, November, 2003“Although other important factors exist, the single biggest reason for prison growth has been changed parole practices. Far more people who have served their minimum sentences and are, by law, eligible for release, are being denied parole.”
Jails in Indian Country, 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2003
Positive Trends in State-Level Sentencing and Corrections Policy Families Against Mandatory Minimums, November, 2003“Texas policymakers introduced parole reforms in 2000. The parole board's approval rate for non-violent offenders rose, parole revocations fell sharply, and prison populations dropped by 7,698 from September 2000 to December 2001.”
Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2003
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2003
Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974-2001 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2003
Prisoners in 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2003
New Prison Statistics: Nation's Use of Incarceration On the Rise Again Justice Policy Institute, July, 2003
Profile of Inmates Under Custody on January 1, 2003 New York Department of Correctional Services, May, 2003
U.S. Prison Populations Trends and Implications Sentencing Project, May, 2003
Deep Impact: Quantifying the Effect of Prison Expansion in the South Justice Policy Institute, April, 2003
Texas Tough: 3 Years Later Justice Policy Institute, April, 2003“After a three-year-decline in the prison population, Texas? prison population may once again be on the rise”
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2003
The population of women in prison increases rapidly Women's Prison Association, March, 2003
Education and Correctional Populations Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 2003“compares educational attainment of correctional populations to the general population”
Building Bridges: From Conviction to Employment A Proposal to Reinvest Corrections Savings in an Employment Initiative Council of State Governments, January, 2003
Profile of Inmates Under Custody on January 1, 2002 New York Department of Correctional Services, January, 2003
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2001 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2002(See Trends in State Parole 1990-2000 for more detail and explanations about this potentially misleading report)
Prisoners in 2001 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2002“State prison population drops in second half of 2001-Federal inmate growth continues”
Analysis of recent Justice Department report: Prisoners in 2001 Sentencing Project, July, 2002
Jails in Indian Country, 2001 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2002“At midyear 2001, jails in Indian country supervised 2,030 persons”
New Justice Department Study: As Some State Prison Populations Decline, Federal Prison Population Grows Justice Policy Institute, April, 2002“While Some State Prison Populations Decline, Federal Lock-up Boom Continues As States Find Alternatives for Nonviolent and Drug Offenders, Federal Imprisonment of Non-Citizens and Drug Offenders Grows”
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2001 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2002
Analysis of new Justice Department report, Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2001 Sentencing Project, April, 2002
The Influences of Truth-in-Sentencing Reforms on Changes in States' Sentencing Practices and Prison Population Urban Institute, April, 2002
Criminal Justice and Health and Human Services: An Exploration of Overlapping Needs, Resources, and Interests in Brooklyn Neighborhoods Urban Institute, January, 2002(by Eric Cadora)
African American Males in the Criminal Justice System Council on Crime and Justice, 2002“In 2000, 37.2% of the state's prisoners were African American. By comparison only 3.5% of the population of Minnesota was African American.”
A Tale of Two Jurisdictions: Youth Crime and Detention Rates in Maryland & the District of Columbia Building Blocks for Youth, October, 2001
Felony Sentences in State Courts, 1998 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2001“In 1998 federal and state courts convicted 978,211 adults of a felony.”
Census of Jails 1999 Bureau of Justice Statistics, September, 2001“At midyear 1999 the Nation's jails held 605,943 inmates, up 32% since the last census in 1993.”
U.S. continues to be world leader in rate of incarceration Sentencing Project, August, 2001
Nations' Incarcerated Population Went Up, Not Down, in 1999-2000 Justice Policy Institute, August, 2001
Probation and Parole in the United States, 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2001“National correctional population reaches new high -- Grows by 117,400 during 2000 to total 6.5 million adults”
Prisoners in 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2001
New prison population figures show slowing of growth but uncertain trends Sentencing Project, August, 2001
Aging Behind Bars: Three Strikes, Seven Years Later Sentencing Project, August, 2001
Prisoner Statistics, 2000 England and Wales Home office, August, 2001
Jails in Indian Country, 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2001
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2001
Analysis of BJS June 30, 2000 statistics Sentencing Project, March, 2001
Too Little Too Late: President Clinton's Prison Legacy Justice Policy Institute, February, 2001
The Expanding Federal Prison Population Sentencing Project, 2001
Profile of Inmates Undercustody on January 1, 2001 New York Department of Correctional Services, 2001“There were 70,153 inmates undercustody on January 1, 2001, of whom 66,874 (95.3%) were men and 3,279 (4.7%) were women.”
Responsibility, Rehabilitation, and Restoration: A Catholic Perspective on Crime and Criminal Justice Catholic Bishops of the United States, November, 2000
Correctional Populations in the United States, 1997 Bureau of Justice Statistics, November, 2000
Diminishing Returns: Crime and Incarceration in the 1990s Sentencing Project, September, 2000
The Punishing Decade: Prison and Jail Estimates at the Millennium Justice Policy Institute, May, 2000
Compendium of Federal Justice Statistics, 1998 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 2000“Cross-agency Federal arrest data published for first time -- almost half of arrests for drug or immigration offenses”
State and Federal Prisoners: Profiles of Inmate Characteristics in 1991 and 1997 General Accounting Office, May, 2000
Veterans in Prison and Jail Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 2000“Male military veterans are incarcerated at less than half the rate of non-veterans”
Do Drug Courts Save Jail and Prison Beds? Vera Institute of Justice, 2000
Shattering "Broken Windows": An Analysis of San Francisco's Alternative Crime Policies Justice Policy Institute, October, 1999
Felony Sentences in the United States, 1996 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 1999
Time Served in Prison by Federal Offenders, 1986-97 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 1999“Describes changes in sentences imposed and time served brought about by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984”
Prior Abuse Reported by Inmates and Probationers Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 1999
Striking Out: The Failure of California's "Three Strikes and You're Out" Law Justice Policy Institute, March, 1999
America's One Million Nonviolent Prisoners Justice Policy Institute, March, 1999
Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 1999“State sentencing law changes linked to increasing time served in State prisons”
Crime and Justice Atlas 1999 Update United States Department of Justice, 1999“Between 1992 and 1997, 35 states, along with the District of Columbia, experienced decreased rates of serious violent crime.”
Crime and Justice Atlas 1999 Update U.S. Department of Justice, 1999“Since 1980, the numbers of prisoners, new court commitments, and releases from state prisons have risen by a yearly average of 8.1 %, 5.5%, and 7.9%, respectively.”
Federal Offenders under Community Supervision, 1987-96 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1998
Crime and Justice Atlas U.S. Department of Justice, June, 1998“The latest rapid increases for both violent crime and violent crime arrest rates occurred during the period 1987-1991. The latest data show violent crime has begun to decline steadily, falling 16% since 1991.”
Profile of Jail Inmates, 1996 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 1998
Three strikes: 5 years later Sentencing Project, 1998
Characteristics of Adults on Probation, 1995 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1997
Did Getting Tough on Crime Pay? Urban Institute, August, 1997
Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1995 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1997
Prisoners in 1996 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 1997“On December 31, 1996, State prisons were operating at between 16% and 24% above capacity, while Federal prisoners were operating at 25% over capacity.”
Lifetime Likelihood of Going to State or Federal Prison Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 1997
Characteristics of New Commitments 1995 New York Department of Correctional Services, 1997“There were 34,721 total admissions to the New York State Department of Correctional Services in calendar year 1995.”
Criminal Justice in Massachusetts: Putting Crime Control First BOTEC Analysis Corporation of Cambridge, October, 1996“Opportunities to reduce crime are systematically neglected, as policy making is dominated by the need to appease the public's justifiable fear and anger and by a wide variety of organizational and professional interests and ideological postures.”
Noncitizens in the Federal Criminal Justice System, 1984-94 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1996
Prison and Jail Inmates, 1995 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1996
Prisoners at Midyear 1995 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1995
Probation and Parole Violators in State Prison, 1991 Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 1995
Prison Sentences and Time Served for Violence Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 1995
Jails and Jail Inmates, 1993-94 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 1995
Continuing Crime of Black Imprisonment Committee to End the Marion Lockdown, 1995
Profile of Inmate Population Under Custody on January 1, 1995 (New York) State of New York Department of Correctional Services, 1995
Three Strikes and You're Out: Estimated Benefits and Costs of California's New Mandatory-Sentencing Law RAND Foundation, 1994
Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 1993
Race of Prisoners Admitted to State and Federal Institutions, 1926-86 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 1991“The recorded number of black prisoners In 1986 was nearly 9 times larger than the number recorded In 1926 (80,814 In 1986 versus 9,292 in 1926). The recorded number of white prisoners was 3 times larger (100,874 in 1986 versus 33,626 In 1926)...”
State and Federal Prisoners, 1925-85 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 1986“At the end of 1985 the incarceration rate was 201 per 100,000, the highest ever recorded.”
Prisoners 1925-81 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1982“The average annual growth rate for the prison population during 1925-81 was 2.4 percent; for the residential population of the United States it was 1.2 percent.”
Prisons and Prisoners Bureau of Justice Statistics, January, 1982“State prison populations have risen 18% since the 1979 study was conducted without a commensurate increase in prison space. Consequently, space shortages in State prisons are considerably more acute than the 1979 data indicate.”