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On this page, the Prison Policy Initiative has curated all of the broad-based research about the criminal justice system that we know of. For research on other criminal justice topics, see our Research Library homepage.
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2024 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2024“Looking at the "whole pie" of mass incarceration opens up conversations about where it makes sense to focus our energies at the local, state, and national levels.”
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2023“The disaggregated numbers presented here are an important step to ensuring that women are not left behind in the effort to end mass incarceration.”
Assessment of US Federal Funding of Incarceration-Related Research, 1985 to 2022Samantha J. Boch, Aaron W. Murnan, Jordan F. Pollard et al, February, 2023“Consistent with previous research, 0.12% of all projects funded at the NIH and 0.03% at the NSF since 1985 were related to incarceration...substantially lower than the number of projects that relate to other systems such as education and the military.”
Correctional Populations in the United States, 2021 - Statistical TablesBureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2023“At yearend 2021, an estimated 5,444,900 persons were under the supervision of adult correctional systems in the United States, a decline of 1% (down 61,100 persons) from yearend 2020.”
Mass Incarceration TrendsSentencing Project, January, 2023“The year 2023 marks the 50th year since the U.S. prison population began its unprecedented surge.”
Winnable criminal justice reforms in 2023Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2022“This list offers policymakers and advocates straightforward solutions that would have the greatest impacts on reducing incarceration and ameliorating harms experienced by those with a conviction history, without further investments in the carceral system.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Pennsylvania Prison Policy Initiative and the Public Interest Law Center, September, 2022“We find that incarcerated people in Pennsylvania come from every corner of the Commonwealth: every single one of the 67 counties is missing a portion of its population to prisons.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Delaware Prison Policy Initiative, Kyra Hoffner, and Jack Young, September, 2022“Baltimore communities with high rates of incarceration were more likely to have high unemployment rates, low household income, a high percentage of residents with less than a high school diploma or GED, decreased life expectancy...”
Criminal Justice Through Management: From Police, Prosecutors, Courts, and Prisons to a Modern Administrative Agency Edward L. Rubin and Malcolm M. Feeley, September, 2022“We recommend that the criminal justice system of each state be redesigned and restructured as a single administrative agency...We offer this as a standard for assessment of the present system, a way to highlight dysfunction and suggest much-needed reform.”
The First Step Act's Prison ReformsBrennan Center for Justice, September, 2022“The Act excludes those convicted of many crimes [from receiving Earned Time Credits]. These exclusions prevent nearly half of the federal prison population from benefiting from credits...[and] appear to serve no policy purpose.”
Ten Principles on Reducing Mass IncarcerationAmerican Bar Association Working Group on Building Public Trust in the American Justice System, August, 2022“It is imperative that jurisdictions across the country reverse the devastating trend of mass incarceration and, in so doing, focus these efforts on reducing disparities in incarceration.”
Time-In-Cell: A 2021 Snapshot of Restrictive Housing based on a Nationwide Survey of U.S. Prison Systems The Correctional Leaders Association & The Arthur Liman Center for Public Interest Law at Yale Law School, August, 2022“In 2012, few statutes focused on the use of restrictive housing. Between 2018 and 2020, when the last report was published, legislators in more than 25 states introduced bills to limit the use of restrictive housing, and some fifteen enacted legislation.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Washington Prison Policy Initiative and More Equitable Democracy, August, 2022“People living in the Skokomish Reservation and Squaxin Island Reservation experience imprisonment rates of over 1,000 per 100,000 residents, which is almost double the rate of imprisonment in Tacoma and more than 6 times the imprisonment rate in Seattle.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in California Prison Policy Initiative and Essie Justice Group, August, 2022“Some areas of federally recognized tribal land -- including the Fort Mojave Reservation and Big Valley Rancheria -- have imprisonment rates more than five times the imprisonment rate of Los Angeles.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Nevada Prison Policy Initiative, Silver State Voices, and ACLU of Nevada, August, 2022“People living in the South Fork Reservation, Ely Reservation, Carson Colony, and the Battle Mountain Reservation experience imprisonment rates ranging from 1,389 per 100,000 to 2,817 per 100,000..”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Virginia Prison Policy Initiative and New Virginia Majority, July, 2022“More than half of everyone incarcerated from Richmond come from just 22 of the city's more than 140 neighborhoods.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Colorado Prison Policy Initiative and Colorado Criminal Justice Reform Coalition, July, 2022“The five most populous counties in the state -- El Paso, Denver, Arapahoe, Jefferson, and Adams -- are home to over 65% of the state's imprisoned population (over 9,000 imprisoned people), but are home to only 55% of the state's total population.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in Maryland Justice Policy Institute and Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2022“A number of less populous areas, including Wicomico, Dorchester, and Somerset counties on the Eastern Shore, rank in the top fifth of Maryland counties when it comes to prison incarceration rates.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in New Jersey Prison Policy Initiative and New Jersey Institute for Social Justice, June, 2022“In New Jersey incarcerated people come from all over the state, but are disproportionately from a few specific cities, most notably Camden, Atlantic City, Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.”
Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in New York Prison Policy Initiative and VOCAL-NY, June, 2022“The city of Rochester -- the fourth most populous city in the state -- with an incarceration rate of 1,051 per 100,000 city residents, is more than 5 times the rate in New York City.”
Toward an Optimal Decarceration StrategyBen Grunwald, April, 2022“The public debate has focused almost exclusively on how we might decarcerate while minimizing any increases in crime and has, therefore, underappreciated the costs of prison itself. We should consider at least three more metrics...”
Beyond the count: A deep dive into state prison populationsPrison Policy Initiative, April, 2022“Incarcerated people are a diverse cross-section of society whose disadvantages and unmet needs often begin early in life, and persist throughout their often lifelong involvement with the criminal legal system.”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2022“This big-picture view is a lens through which the main drivers of mass incarceration come into focus; it allows us to identify important, but often ignored, systems of confinement.”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2022 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2022“This big-picture view is a lens through which the main drivers of mass incarceration come into focus; it allows us to identify important, but often ignored, systems of confinement.”
The High Cost Of A Fresh Start: A State-by-State Analysis of Court Debt As a Bar To Record Clearing National Consumer Law Center and Collateral Consequences Resource Center, February, 2022“In almost every jurisdiction we studied, outstanding court debt is a barrier to record clearing in at least some cases, either rendering a person entirely ineligible for relief or making it difficult for them to qualify.”
Waiting for Relief: A National Survey of Waiting Periods for Record Clearing Margaret Love and David Schlussel, Collateral Consequences Resources Center, February, 2022“The waiting periods for felony convictions range from as high as 10 or 20 years in North Carolina to as low as 0-2 years in California, with most states falling at the lower end of that range.”
A Look Inside the Black Box of New York State's Criminal Justice DataMeasures for Justice, February, 2022“This report addresses the ways New York State's criminal justice data infrastructure fails to meet basic levels of transparency that are requisite for evidence-based decision making and general accountability.”
Justice-Involved Individuals and the Consumer Financial MarketplaceConsumer Financial Protection Bureau, January, 2022“People exiting jail or prison face frequent fees for the prepaid cards they often have no choice but to receive...even market-rate fees on a prepaid product would burden this vulnerable class of people relative to receiving cash or checks.”
Reimagining JudgingNancy Gertner and the Square One Project, January, 2022“Judges are not alone in resisting reform-- some prosecutors, police, politicians, and even the media share responsibility. But in many ways judicial resistance to change is more difficult to address, clothed as it is in citations to precedent...”
Can Restorative Justice Conferencing Reduce Recidivism? Evidence From the Make-It-Right Program (Working Paper) Yotam Shem-Tov, Steven Raphael and Alissa Skog, January, 2022“Assignment to [a restorative justice program] reduces the probability of a rearrest within six months by 19 percentage points, a 44 percent reduction relative to the control group...the reduction in recidivism persists even four years after randomization.”
Prisoners in 2020Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2021“The prison populations of California, Texas, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons each declined by more than 22,500 from 2019 to 2020, accounting for 33% of the total prison population decrease.”
Winnable criminal justice reforms in 2022Prison Policy Initiative, December, 2021“We've curated this list to offer policymakers and advocates straightforward solutions that would have the greatest impacts without further investments in the carceral system and point to policy reforms that have gained momentum in the past year.”
Profle of Prison Inmates, 2016Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2021“Prisoners held in state prison in 2016 were older than those held in state prison in 2004. Te average age of state prisoners was 39 in 2016, compared to 35 in 2004.”
The Effect of Prison Industry on Recidivism: An Evaluation of California Prison Industry Authority (CALPIA) James Hess and Susan F. Turner, Center for Evidence-Based Corrections, November, 2021“CALPIA participants were significantly less likely to be arrested at one, two and three years post release [compared to waitlisted people].”
Beyond Jails: Community-Based Strategies for Public Safety Vera Institute of Justice, November, 2021“Genuine partnership with nonprofit organizations and advocacy groups must be at the center of efforts to create a network of supports that function effectively, equitably, and without funneling people into the criminal legal system.”
New York State's New Death Penalty: The Death Toll of Mass Incarceration in a Post Execution Era Columbia University Center for Justice, October, 2021“More people have died in NY State custody in the last decade than the total of number of people executed in the 364 years New York State had the death penalty.”
Custodial Sanctions and Reoffending: A Meta-Analytic Review Damon M. Petrich et al, September, 2021“Beginning in the 1970s, the United States began an experiment in mass imprisonment...Skeptics argued that imprisonment may have a criminogenic effect. The skeptics were right.”
A Dose of Dignity: Equitable Vaccination Policies for Incarcerated People and Correctional Staff During the Covid-19 Pandemic Itay Ravid, Jordan Hyatt, and Steven L. Chanenson, September, 2021“Governments--and the society they represent--have both a constitutional and a moral obligation to take care of people they choose to incarcerate. That includes providing vaccines...There are no constitutional exceptions for public health crises.”
Custodial Sanctions and Reoffending: A Meta-Analytic Review Petrich, Damon et al., September, 2021“Compared with noncustodial sanctions, custodial sanctions, including imprisonment, have no appreciable effect on reducing reoffending. The studies tend to show that placing offenders in custody has a slight criminogenic effect.”
Racial and Ethnic Disparities throughout the Criminal Legal System: A Result of Racist Policies and Discretionary Practices Urban Institute, August, 2021“Racial biases are so deeply embedded in the criminal legal system that disparities based on race exist at each decision point, impacting subsequent decision points and resulting in negative outcomes for Black people and other people of color.”
Alcohol and Drug Use and Treatment Reported by Prisoners: Survey of Prison Inmates, 2016 Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2021“Female state prisoners (58%) were more likely than male state prisoners (48%) to have met the criteria for having a substance use disorder in the 12 months prior to admission to prison.”
Building exits off the highway to mass incarceration: Diversion programs explained Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2021“We envision the criminal justice system as a highway where people are heading toward the possibility of incarceration; depending on the state or county, this highway may have exit ramps in the form of diversion programs and alternatives to incarceration.”
Juvenile Life Without Parole: An Overview Sentencing Project, May, 2021“The United States stands alone as the only nation that sentences people to life without parole for crimes committed before turning 18.”
Youth in Adult and Juvenile Correctional Facilities: Comparison of Services and Behavioral Management Paywall :(Insun Park and Christopher J. Sullivan, May, 2021“Given contemporary efforts to prevent adolescents from experiencing the negative consequences of incarceration, it is critical to assess the impact of juvenile transfer.”
Prison Population Trends 2020Massachusetts Department of Correction, May, 2021“The MA DOC jurisdiction population's historic decline since 2012 (n=11,723) continued through to January 1st, 2021 (n=6,848).”
What Doesn't Get Measured Doesn't Get Done: A Roadmap for Data Collection and Reporting in the Era of Bail Reform Joanna Thomas, Abdiaziz Ahmed, New York City Criminal Justice Agency, April, 2021“Proper pretrial data collection, analysis, and reporting can help to build systems that meet local needs, save money, improve program practices, and decrease jail crowding.”
Slamming the Courthouse Door: 25 years of evidence for repealing the Prison Litigation Reform Act Prison Policy Initiative, April, 2021“The PLRA should be repealed. It was bad policy in the 1990s -- and allowing it to continue today is even worse policy.”
The People's Plan for Prison ClosureCalifornians United for a Responsible Budget (CURB), April, 2021“Accomplishing our goal of closing ten prisons in five years will be hard. It will require political courage. But history is watching us...”
Mortality in State and Federal Prisons, 2001-2018 - Statistical TablesBureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2021“In 2018, a total of 4,135 state prisoners died in publicly or privately operated prisons, and an additional 378 federal prisoners died in facilities operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP).”
Redefining the Narrative: On Behalf of the Statewide Women's Justice Task Force of Illinois Deanna Benos, Alyssa Benedict, The Women's Justice Institute, April, 2021“Prisons have been deployed as a default response to women's attempts to survive untenable social conditions, yet there is no evidence that any amount of time in prison is helpful or even improves public safety.”
Campaign for Criminal Justice Data Modernization: Recommendations From an Expert Roundtable Arnold Ventures, April, 2021“Unfortunately, criminal justice reform is made more difficult by data that is incomplete and fraught with error.”
A Better Path Forward for Criminal Justice: A Report by the Brookings-AEI Working Group on Criminal Justice Reform The Brookings Institution, American Enterprise Institute, April, 2021“The essays in this volume are intended to provide...research-grounded guidance and insight on core issues and strategies that can sustain bipartisan support for critically needed criminal justice reforms.”
Federal Justice Statistics, 2017-2018Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2021“Of the 372,354 persons under some form of federal correctional control at fiscal year-end 2018, 60% were in secure confinement and 40% were under community supervision.”
Veterans in PrisonBureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2021“An estimated 107,400 veterans were serving time in state or federal prison in 2016.”
Time Served in State Prison, 2018Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2021“The average time served by state prisoners released in 2018, from initial admission to initial release, was 2.7 years, and the median time served was 1.3 years.”
Punitive ambiguity: State-level criminal record data quality in the era of widespread background screening Paywall :(David McElhattan, February, 2021“This study develops the concept of punitive ambiguity to characterize the burdens of incomplete criminal records and examines how they vary at the state level, providing evidence that punitive ambiguity is racially patterned.”
Federal Prisoner Statistics Collected Under The First Step Act, 2020Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2021“The portion of federal prisoners who were the parent, step-parent, or guardian of a minor child (defined as a dependent age 20 or younger by the BOP) grew from 45% to 49% from year-end 2018 to year-end 2019.”
Prisons and Penny-Pinching: Finding Budget Savings in the Time of COVID-19 Texas Public Policy Coalition, January, 2021“Even a small percentage reduction in the number of annual revocations can potentially yield millions in annual cost savings.”
How Governors Can Use Categorical Clemency as a Corrective ToolUrban Institute, November, 2020“Though many clemency deliberations are independent case-by-case assessments, in some cases, governors can also extend clemency eligibility categorically to groups of people in prison to mitigate structural issues or accomplish larger reform goals.”
Models of Prosecutor-Led Diversion Programs in the United States and BeyondKay L. Levine and Ronald F. Wright, May, 2020“Prosecutor-led diversion programs create the greatest risk of abuse, because other governmental actors are not necessary to resolve a case. The prosecutor might operate the diversion program in a way that widens the net of social control...”
People in Prison in 2019Vera Institute of Justice, May, 2020“"Vera researchers collected data on the number of people who were incarcerated in state and federal prisons as of December 31, 2019...[and] updated data on people in prison at the end of the first quarter of 2020."”
Data Collected Under the First Step Act, 2019Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2020(At year-end 2018, a total of 80,599 people in federal prisons-- or 45% of the BOP population--were the parent, step-parent, or guardian of a minor child.)
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2020“The American criminal justice system holds almost 2.3 million people”
Five ways the criminal justice system could slow the pandemicPrison Policy Initiative, March, 2020“Given the toll COVID-19 has already taken on our jails and prisons, as well as our society at large, the time is now for federal, state, and local officials to put public health before punishment.”
The National Registry of Exonerations Annual ReportThe National Registry of Exonerations, March, 2020“Last year saw a record number of years lost to prison by defendants exonerated for crimes they did not commit--1,908 years in total for 143 exonerations, an average of 13.3 years lost per exoneree.”
Mortality in State and Federal Prisons, 2001-2016Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2020“The number of deaths in state prisons rose 1.3% from 2015 to 2016 (from 3,682 to 3,729), while the number of deaths in federal prisons fell 15% (from 455 to 388).”
From Decarceration to E-CarcerationChaz Arnett, February, 2020“A move from decarceration to e-carceration, or from mass incarceration to mass surveillance, will likely fail to resolve, and may exacerbate, one of the greatest harms of mass incarceration: the maintenance of social stratification.”
Restorative Prosecution? Rethinking Responses to Violence Olivia Dana and Sherene Crawford, January, 2020“As progressive prosecutors attempt to take on criminal justice reform, restorative justice offers a path forward, as well as a means of handling violent cases, and complements the reforms they are already carrying out for lower-level, nonviolent cases.”
One Year After the First Step Act: Mixed Outcomes Sentencing Project, December, 2019“Expansion of good-time credits implemented in July led to the release of approximately 3,000 in federal prisons; one-third, however, were transferred to the custody of other jurisdictions because of existing detainers.”
Does contact with the justice system deter or promote future delinquency? Results from a longitudinal study of British adolescent twins Ryan T. Motz et al., December, 2019“We found that contact with the justice system--through spending a night in jail/prison, being issued an ASBO, or having an official crime record--promotes misbehavior, which supports the labeling hypothesis.”
Since you asked: Is it me, or is the government releasing less data about the criminal justice system? Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2019(Reports by the Bureau of Justice Statistics are slowing down - and its framing of criminal justice issues is becoming more punitive.)
Court-Ordered Community Service: A National Perspective Center for Court Innovation, November, 2019“Numerous findings also suggest current practices are undercutting the potential of community service to act as an alternative to fines and fees.”
Unlocking the Bar: Expanding Access to the Legal Profession for People with Criminal Records in California Stanford Center on the Legal Profession & Stanford Criminal Justice Center, July, 2019“Successive barriers impede access to California's legal profession for qualified candidates with criminal records.”
The Birth of the Penal Organization: Why Prisons Were Born to Fail Ashley T. Rubin, June, 2019“We move away from the question, "Why do prisons fail?" and ask instead, "Why do we repeatedly expect prisons to succeed?"”
Next Steps in Federal Corrections Reform Implementing and Building on the First Step Act Urban Institute, May, 2019(Successful implementation will require the commitment and buy-in of the DOJ and BOP, education and training, adequate funding, faithful development and execution of the risk and needs assessment tool, and outside oversight to monitor progress.)
Reconsidering the "Violent Offender"Square One Project, May, 2019“A meaningful decrease in the United States' historically high rates of incarceration will require that reforms extend to people imprisoned for offenses considered violent.”
Thinking About Emerging Adults and Violent CrimeEmerging Adult Justice Project, May, 2019“Viewed through this lens, punishment oriented approaches to violent acts are inadequate. Instead, punitive criminal justice policy often perpetuates violence by adding to the socio-economic disadvantage in which violence can flourish.”
Prisoners in 2017Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2019“The imprisonment rate for sentenced prisoners under state or federal jurisdiction decreased 2.1% from 2016 to 2017 (from 450 to 440 sentenced prisoners per 100,000 U.S. residents).”
People in Prison in 2018Vera Institute of Justice, April, 2019“Prison incarceration rates fell in 35 states and grew in 15 others.”
Jail Inmates in 2017Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2019“County and city jails held 745,200 inmates at midyear 2017.”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2019 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2019“The American criminal justice system holds almost 2.3 million people.”
The Opportunity Atlas: Mapping the Childhood Roots of Social Mobility Opportunity Insights, October, 2018“Moving to a neighborhood that is just a mile or two away can change children's average earnings by several thousand dollars a year and have significant effects on a spectrum of other outcomes ranging from incarceration to teenage birth rates.”
Toward Misdemeanor Justice: Lessons from New York City Greg Berman & Julian Adler, June, 2018“This article seeks to articulate a new approach to misdemeanor justice that reconciles the maintenance of public safety with the urgent need to reduce unnecessary incarceration.”
You Get What You Measure: New Performance Indicators Needed to Gauge Progress of Criminal Justice Reform Harvard Kennedy School, May, 2018(This report argues that we need new performance measures that shed light on correctional population composition and recidivism by risk in order to gauge the effectiveness of reform efforts.)
The State of Justice Reform 2017Vera Institute of Justice, March, 2018(This report identifies the major trends & developments in the justice system during 2017, and looks ahead to how this new policy landscape will inform criminal justice reform work in 2018.)
Louisiana's 2017 Criminal Justice Reforms: The most incarcerated state changes course The Pew Charitable Trusts, March, 2018(On June 15, 2017, Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards (D) signed the most comprehensive justice reform package in state history, projected to reduce prison & community supervision populations, and save taxpayers $262 million dollars over a 10 year period.)
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2018(Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie answers the essential questions of how many people are locked up, where, and why.)
50-State Report on Public SafetyThe Council of State Governments, March, 2018(This report brings together data from all 50 states on crime, recidivism, corrections trends, and key findings from research on what works to guide the design of new public safety efforts.)
Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems, 2016: A Criminal Justice Information Policy Report Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 2018(This report shows that there are 110,235,200 criminal history files across the U.S., including Puerto Rico and Guam.)
Advancing Sensible Justice in TennesseeBeacon Center of Tennessee, January, 2018(More than 130,000 Tennesseans are behind bars or working through the criminal justice system. This report calls for a sharp change in the state's criminal justice system in order to reduce costs, increase public safety, and prevent recidivism.)
Using Behavioral Science to Improve Criminal Justice Outcomes: Preventing Failures to Appear in Court ideas42 and the University of Chicago Crime Lab, January, 2018(This report illustrates how a behavioral science approach to criminal justice can result in a more fair and efficient system.)
The Mercy Lottery: A Review of the Obama Administration's Clemency Initiative NYU Law School, January, 2018(This report analyzes President Obama's clemency initiative and tells the stories of individual petitioners who were either denied clemency or whose petitions were never granted, despite being ideal candidates by the Initiative's own terms.)
Winnable criminal justice reforms: A Prison Policy Initiative briefing on promising state reform issues for 2018 Prison Policy Initiative, December, 2017(This briefing outlines a number of criminal justice policy reforms lawmakers can implement to reduce mass incarceration in 2018.)
Florida Criminal Justice Reform: Understanding the Challenges and Opportunities The Project on Accountable Justice, November, 2017(This report is an effort to help Florida's citizens and policy makers understand the nature of some of the problems found in the criminal justice system, notably resulting in dangerous prisons. It also suggests opportunities for reform.)
Disrupting the Cycle: Reimagining the Prosecutor's Role in Reentry NYU Center on the Administration of Criminal Law, November, 2017(Prosecutors have traditionally focused on their "front-end" role, but by defining their role as ending at case disposition, prosecutors miss an important opportunity to have a greater impact on public safety.)
Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2017 Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2017“This report provides a first-of-its-kind detailed view of the 219,000 women incarcerated in the United States, and how they fit into the even larger picture of correctional control.”
Reforming Criminal Justice: Bridging the Gap Between Scholarship and Reform Academy for Justice, October, 2017(This report covers dozens of topics within the areas of criminalization, policing, pretrial and trial processes, punishment, incarceration, and release.)
A Matter of Time: The Causes and Consequences of Rising Time Served in America's Prisons Urban Institute, July, 2017(• A growing share of the U.S. prison population has been incarcerated for 10 or more years â€" and in at least 11 states the number of people in prison for a decade or longer has more than doubled since 2000.)
The Prison Paradox: More Incarceration Will Not Make Us Safer Vera Institute of Justice, July, 2017“The impact of incarceration on crime is limited and has been diminishing for several years. Increased incarceration has no effect on violent crime and may actually lead to higher crime rates when incarceration is concentrated in certain communities.”
Trends in U.S. CorrectionsSentencing Project, June, 2017(This fact sheet, updated JuneÂ|2017, provides a compilation of key developments in the criminal justice system over the past several decades.)
Designed to Fail: The President's Deference to the Department of Justice in Advancing Criminal Justice Reform Rachel E. Barkow and Mark Osler, June, 2017“This Article offers institutional changes that would help future presidents make the system less punitive and reduce prison populations.”
Trends in U.S. CorrectionsSentencing Project, June, 2017(This fact sheet, updated JuneÂ|2017, provides a compilation of key developments in the criminal justice system over the past several decades.)
The Status of Black Women in the United StatesInstitute for Women's Policy Research, June, 2017“The intention behind this report is to make visible the experiences of Black women in our economy and our democracy.”
A Federal Agenda to Reduce Mass IncarcerationBrennan Center for Justice, May, 2017“Federal funding drives state policy, and helped create our current crisis of mass incarceration. And the federal government sets the national tone, which is critical to increasing public support and national momentum for change.”
The Case for Paid Apprenticeships Behind BarsCenter for American Progress, April, 2017“This brief argues that greater access to paid prison apprenticeship programs could effectively improve inmates’ post-release outcomes, particularly for a group of individuals who already face significant barriers to labor market entry.”
Right to Counsel Services in the 50 States: An Indigent Defense Reference Guide for Policymakers Sixth Amendment Center, March, 2017“The variations amongst how states deal with the Sixth Amendment does not stop at funding and oversight. The number of structural approaches to providing lawyers to the poor is great.”
Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2017 Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2017(Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie answers the essential questions of how many people are locked up, where, and why.)
Guideposts for the Era of Smart DecarcerationCenter for Social Development, February, 2017(This report offers strategies for practitioners, advocates, reformers, and researchers with an interest in transforming the criminal justice system.)
Following the Money of Mass IncarcerationPrison Policy Initiative, January, 2017“In this first-of-its-kind report, we find that the system of mass incarceration costs the government and families of justice-involved people at least $182 billion every year.”
Expanding the Reach of Victim Services: Maximizing the Potential of VOCA Funding for Underserved Survivors Vera Institute of Justice, August, 2016“Too often, victims of crime who are from underserved backgrounds are left out of victim services. With this new infusion of funds, the field can grow to better provide for marginalized people.”
Making Hard Time Harder: Programmatic Accommodations for Inmates with Disabilities Under the Americans with Disabilities Act AVID Prison Project, July, 2016“This report...aims to highlight the difficulties that inmates with disabilities face as they seek to access programs and services in state prison systems.”
In Your StateGideon at 50, April, 2016“This interactive map provides the public and policy-makers with a birds-eye view of some of the most critical aspects of the provision of public defense.”
Heat in U.S. Prisons and Jails Corrections and the Challenge of Climate Change Daniel W. E. Holt, August, 2015“Correctional departments should consider not only the direct impacts of rising temperatures but also indirect impacts such as greater risks of wildfires and drought, increased burdens on the electric grid, and growing pressures on food and water supplies.”
Interim Report of The President's Task Force on 21st Century PolicingPresident's Task Force on 21st Century Policing, March, 2015“The President should support and provide funding for the creation of a National Crime and Justice Task Force to review and evaluate all components of the criminal justice system.”
Winnable criminal justice reforms: A Prison Policy Initiative briefing on promising state reform issues for 2020 Prison Policy Initiative, 2015“https://static.prisonpolicy.org/reports/winnable2020.pdf”
The High Costs of Low Risk: The Crisis of America's Aging Prison Population The Osborne Association, July, 2014“...at present, twenty-eight states hold more than 1,000 older prisoners, up from just two states in 1990.”
The Case for Independent Oversight of Texas' Prison System: Pursuing Accountability, Efficiency, and Transparency Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, March, 2013“For Texas communities and the State, there are clear public safety and cost-savings benefits to developing a system of independent, external oversight for Texas prisons, but those living and working in the prisons on a daily basis will benefit most.”
Performance Incentive Funding Aligning Fiscal and Operational Responsibility to Produce More Safety at Less Cost Vera Institute of Justice, November, 2012“Community corrections agencies should adopt evidence-based practices that are proven to reduce recidivism and achieve successful offender outcomes. States should return some of the state savings to local agencies when those practices reduce recidivism.”
Tribal Crime Data Collection ActivitiesBureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2012“Suspects investigated for violent offenses in Indian country totaled 23% of all federal investigations for violent offenses in FY 2010.”
Tribal Crime Data Collection ActivitiesBureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2011“For the first time, the Bureau of Indian Affairs' (BIA) submissions to the Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) were disaggregated by tribe and reported in Crime in the U.S., 2009.”
It's about time Aging Prisoners, Increasing Costs, and Geriatric Release Vera Institute of Justice, April, 2010“Given that many state policymakers have expressed an intention to permit the release of elderly inmates who are not a threat to public safety, it is remarkable that geriatric release policies have had little impact.”
Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems, 2008Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2009“Forty-eight States, the District of Columbia, and Guam reported the total number of persons in their criminal history files as 92,329,600, of which 85,836,300 were automated.”
Criminal Justice Primer 2009Sentencing Project, February, 2009“An overview of nine policy priorities in criminal and juvenile justice reform that address issues of reentry, sentencing, racial disparity and crime prevention.”
Smart on Crime Recommendations for the Next Administration and Congress 2009 Criminal Justice Transition Coalition, November, 2008“The 2009 Criminal Justice Transition Coalition's collaborative report identifying critical needs for federal policy reform for President-elect Barack Obama's agenda.”
Improving Criminal History Records in Indian Country, 2004-2006Bureau of Justice Statistics, July, 2007“Describes the achievements of the Tribal Criminal History Records Improvement Program (T-CHRIP) which provides grants to federally recognized tribes to improve data sharing across tribal, state and national criminal records systems.”
Interstate Transfer of Prison Inmates in the United StatesNational Institute of Corrections, February, 2006“2,089 state-sentenced inmates were transferred between state prison systems, 345 transferred to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and 2,466 transferred to privately operated prisons located outside the sending state as of July 1 2005.”
Census of Tribal Justice Agencies in Indian Country, 2002Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2005“Almost 75% (140) of the tribes relied on the States for some justice services (for example, correctional and counseling services).”
Strengthening Public Safety, Increasing Accountability, and Instituting Fiscal Responsibility in the Department of Correction Governor's Commission on Corrections Reform, June, 2004(Massachusetts, the Harshbarger Commission)
Prison Policy Initiative AtlasPrison Policy Initiative, February, 2004(Maps of disenfranchisement, death penalty, incarceration, prison construction and more in the U.S. and internationally)
The Prison Index: Taking the Pulse of the Crime Control Industry Prison Policy Initiative and Western Prison Project, March, 2003
Administrative Investigation The facts and circumstances surrounding the events, which Inmate John Geoghan's death on August 23, 2003 Massachusetts Administrative Investigation Panel, 2003“...the known ability of inmates to prevent staff from opening the cell doors in SBCC... also played a role.”
Crime and Justice Atlas 2000U.S. Department of Justice, June, 2000“As our criminal justice system undergoes many changes and interventions, it is important that we continually reexamine the practices, policies, and philosophies that guide us.”
Profile of Inmates Under Custody on January 1, 2000New York Department of Correctional Services, January, 2000“Only 32,689 (45.8%) of under custody inmates had at least a high school diploma or equivalent out of 71,356 inmates.”
Conducting Community Surveys: A Practical Guide for Law Enforcement Agencies Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 1999
Supermax Prisons: Overview and General Considerations National Institute of Corrections, January, 1999
Historical Corrections Statistics in the United States, 1850-1984 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1986“This work presents summary tables and commentary for published national government reports on corrections statistics for the period of U.S. history from 1850 (the date of the first national reports on the topic) to 1984.”
