Many of the worst features of mass incarceration — such as racial disparities in prisons — can be traced back to policing. Our research shows that police disproportionately target Black and other marginalized people in stops, arrests, and use of force. We've also explored how police are misused to respond to problems unrelated to public safety, like mental health crises and homelessness.
Below is some of our key research on policing:
Key statistics:
Annual taxpayer cost for policing: $203.2 billion1
Number of people in the U.S. who experience the threat or use of force by police annually: 749,0002
Percentage increase in the number of women experiencing the threat or use of force by police between 1999-2022: 285%3
Number of people killed by law enforcement in the United States per 10 million people: 40 4
Diversion program" can refer to a wide variety of initiatives to keep people out of jail. We wrote one report that explains them all. Our report envisions the criminal justice process as a highway, with five major "exits" off the road to incarceration.
We explain the need to redirect dollars wasted on repeatedly jailing people — who are disproportionately Black, low-income, and have greater health needs — toward community based services that prevent justice-system involvement.
We lay out questions to ask local leaders about law enforcement practices before green-lighting proposals for jail expansion. We also explain "best practices" to help local officials avoid unnecessary arrests and incarceration.
Our analysis of NYPD data on stop-and-frisk shows that the police used physical force in almost a quarter of stops — and that their use of force is also racially discriminatory.
Briefings
Resource spotlight: Data projects tracking police misconduct, use of force, and employment histories, by Wendy Sawyer and Emily Widra, January 26, 2026 The need for law enforcement transparency, oversight, and accountability has never been clearer. We highlight data projects that have helped document and investigate misconduct, as both data sources and as models for others who want to contribute to these collective efforts.
High stakes mistakes: How courts respond to “failure to appear”, by Brian Nam-Sonenstein, August 15, 2023 Research shows that while most people who miss court are not dangerous or evading justice, the way courts treat “failure to appear” may make our communities less safe.
New data: Police use of force rising for Black, female, and older people; racial bias persists, by Leah Wang, December 22, 2022 New survey data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics on police interactions in 2019 and 2020 provide the broadest look at relations between people and police officers. The findings leave a lot to be desired (as they’re primarily pre-pandemic), but the message is clear: police are still a massive presence in our communities, and they don’t always provide the solutions and safety we need.
Ten key facts about policing: Highlights from our work, by Wendy Sawyer, June 5, 2020 Police disproportionately target Black and other marginalized people in stops, arrests, and use of force; and are increasingly called upon to respond to problems, such as homelessness, that are unrelated to public safety.
Police stops are still marred by racial discrimination, by Alexi Jones, October 12, 2018 National data shows that nearly 1 million people in the U.S. experience the threat or use of force by police in a given year — and they are disproportionately Black and Latinx.
Police, courts, jails, and prisons all fail disabled people, by Elliot Oberholtzer, August 23, 2017 Disabled people represent a disproportionate number of those stopped, arrested, and killed by police, largely because we rely on militarized police forces to handle mental and physical health crises, and because many behaviors related to disability have been criminalized.
The justice system's unequal treatment of poor people hits people of color and women the hardest. Our research provides race and gender breakdowns in the criminal justice system.
Of the 1,318 killings by police in 2025, 264 of the victims had signs of mental illness, and 80 others had signs of drug or alcohol use, according to Mapping Police Violence data. ↩
Building exits off the highway to mass incarceration: Diversion programs explained
Building exits off the highway to mass incarceration: Diversion programs explained
Arrest, Release, Repeat: How police and jails are misused to respond to social problems
Arrest, Release, Repeat: How police and jails are misused to respond to social problems
Policing Women: Race and gender disparities in police stops, searches, and use of force
Policing Women: Race and gender disparities in police stops, searches, and use of force
Does our county really need a bigger jail? A guide to avoiding unnecessary jail expansion
Does our county really need a bigger jail? A guide to avoiding unnecessary jail expansion
What "Stop-and-Frisk" Really Means: Discrimination & Use of Force
What "Stop-and-Frisk" Really Means: Discrimination & Use of Force
Race and gender
